MEDICAL SCIENCE


It has been established by modern historical research that the earliest human civilization dates back to about 7,000 years. Egypt and Babylon were the first countries to feel the impact of civilization, which was disseminated through various other countries including Assyria, China, India, Persia and Phoenicia, ultimately reaching Greece where it found the most congenial atmosphere for its adequate development. Romans inherited their knowledge from such eminent Greek intellectuals as Socrates and Plato, Aristotle and Pericles, Demosthenes and Sophocles. The downfall of the Roman Empire caused intellectual stagnation and the storm of barbarism which swept over the world presented the greatest threat to cultural progress, which would have been in danger of total extinction, had it not been saved by the timely intervention of the Arabs. "The Arabs" says Humboldt, "were admirably situated to act the part of mediators, and to influence the nations from the Eupharates to the Guadalquivir and Mid-Africa. Their unexampled intellectual activity marks a distinct epoch in the history of the world."'

The golden era of Muslims' achievement in the field of scientific and philosophical research, began in 900 A. D. and lasted for two centuries. The physicians and scientists of the Islamic world having stood on the firm foundation of Greek science began to rely upon their own resources and to develop from within.

Jabir known as the father of Arabic alchemy was a mystic and was known as 'Ceber' in mediaeval Latin literature. He was closely attached to the family of the Barmekides, the ministerial dynasty of the Abbasid Caliphate. He had founded a laboratory at Kufa, whose ruins were discovered 200 years later. Sir Thomas Arnold pays eloquent tribute to this great Muslim scientist when he says, "At the very dawn stands the figure of a Muslim whose shadow lies athwart the science of the middle ages in the orient as in the Occident."

Al-Razi:(Latin Rhazes 865--925 A.D.) was born at Rayy (Persia) in 865 A. D. "Rhazes" says Max Meyerhof, "was undoubtedly the greatest physician of the Islamic world and one of the great physicians of all time."' In his young age he practised as an alchemist but later he devoted himself exclusively to the development of medical science both in theory and practice. He wrote Kitab Al-Mansuri (called Liber Almartsoris in Latin) a 10 volume treatise dealing with Greek medicine which was published in several editions. According to an European writer, "His erudition was all embracing and his scientific output remarkable, amounting to more than 200 books, half of which are medical.' His outstanding work, Al-Judari-wal-Hasbah a book dealing with smallpox and measles is one of the most authentic books on the subject even to the present day. It was translated into Latin and other European languages and was published more than forty times between 1498 and 1866 A.D. It contains detailed information regarding the treatment of postules. The greatest achievement of Al-Razi in the realm of medical science is his celebrated work Al-Hawi (Latin Continens) the most comprehensive encyclopaedia of medicine ever written by a medical man, which runs into 20 volumes. This book was translated into Latin by the Sicilian Jewish physician, Faraj Ibn Salim, on the order of Charles I, King of Sicily, and named Continens. "Its influence on European medicine was thus very considerable," says Max Meyerhof. Al-Razi has also contributed to gynecology, obstetrics, ophthalmology and has written valuable treatise on the treatment of some common diseases in the East including stones in the bladder and kidneys. He was also an eminent surgeon and is the inventor of 'Seton' in surgery. He settled in Baghdad where he founded a hospital named Bimaristan. He selected its site by hanging pieces of raw meat in various localities and choosing the spot where they showed least signs of putrefaction.

Ali Ibn Al-Abbas-al-Majusi known in the west as Haly Abbas, who died in 994 A. D., was the author of a celebrated work Kitab-al-Maliki known as Liber Regius in Latin, an excellent and compact encyclopaedia dealing with both the theory and practice of medical science. It is less voluminous than Al-Razi's Hawi and it remained a standard book until it was superseded by the Canon the masterpiece of the great Avicenna. Perhaps Majusi was the first physician to write about the capillary system and to describe accurately the way in which a child is born.

Abu Ali Al-Husain-al-Sina, (980--1037 A.D.) known as Avicenna in the west was one of the greatest intellectuals of the Islamic world who is ranked second only to Aristotle, the greatest mind the world has ever produced. His intellectual achievement as a physician is less remarkable than his achievements as a philosopher and physicist. He had visited the court of Noah the II, the Samanid Ruler of Bokhara who allowed him to use his well equipped library. His gigantic work AlQanun-Fil-Tib known as Canon in Latin is the culmination and masterpiece of Arab systematisation. It is a medical encyclopaedia dealing with 760 drugs, as well as with general medicine, simple drugs, and diseases affecting all parts of the body. It is particularly concerned with Pathology and Pharmacopoeia and was translated into Latin in the 12th century by Gerard of Cremona. The popularity of this excellent book may be gauged by the fact that during the last 30 years of the 15th century it was printed 16 times and in the 16th century 20 times in various European languages. Publications including sections from this work as well as commentaries on it in various languages of both the east and West are innumerable. According to a celebrated western writer, "Probably no medical work ever written has been so much studied ......Hence his influence on European medicine has been overwhelming."' Sir Jadu Nath Sircar, the celebrated Indian Historian pays eloquent tribute to Ibn Sina when he says, "Avicenna was the greatest intellectual giant of the middle ages."" He discovered the spreading of disease through water. Avicenna was responsible for elevating Islamic medicine to its zenith, and his portrait as well as that of AI-Razi still adorns the grand Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris.

Abu-Al-Jarrah-Al-Zahrawi known in Latin as Abul Casis who died in 1013 was a great surgeon who wrote AE-Tasrif containing 30 sections, the last of which deals with surgery. Muslim physicians at that time did not pay any attention to surgery and it was a totally neglected field. Al-Tasrif is fully illustrated with sketches of surgical instruments and it profoundly contributed to the development of surgery both in the East and the West. It was translated into several European languages and the famous French surgeon Guy de Chauliac benefitted from one of its Latin translations. Stanley Lane Poole in his celebrated work The Moors in Spain pays eloquent tribute to the part played by Spanish Muslims in the awakening of the West, when he says, "Every branch of science was seriously studied there, and medicine received more and greater additions by the discoveries of the doctors and surgeons of Andalusia than it had gained during all the centuries that had elapsed since the days of Galen."'

Ali Ibn Isa of Baghdad known in Latin as Jesu Occulist has written an excellent treatise on ophthalmology, a branch of medicine dealing with eye diseases. It was translated into Latin and was considered the authoritative work on eye diseases in Europe till the middle of the 18th century.l

Abu Ali al-Hasan (965-1020 A.D.) known as Alhazen in the west is recognised as the greatest authority on optics the world has ever produced. He was born at Basra and later joined the service of a Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, where he was assigned to discover the method of regulating the inundation of the river Nile. He could not achieve this objective, hence he had to remain underground till the death of the Caliph. He has made valuable contributions to the development of physics and medicine, but his outstanding achievement is in the realm of optics. He has corrected the theories of Euclid and Ptolemy on the subject. His Opticae Thesaurus influenced such great writers on optics as Roger Bacon, Leonard da Vinci, John Kepler and all mediaeval western writers, who base their works on the research of Alhazen. The two greatest luminaries of the Islamic world Ibn Sina and Al-Beruni shared and fully endorsed Alhazen's opinion that, 'It is not the ray that leaves the eye and meets the object that gives rise to vision. Rather the form of the perceived object passes into the eye and is transmitted by its transparent body.

Ibn Rushd known as Averroes in the west who died in 1198 in Morocco is the greatest Aristotelian philosopher, He is the author of 16 medical works of which one Kulliyat Fil Tib dealing with general rules of medicine was translated into Latin as Colliget. It was printed several times in Europe. Averroes is one of the most outstanding literary figures that Islamic Spain has produced and he was instrumental in clearing away the darkness of illiteracy that had enveloped Europe.

Ibn Katina, the Moorish physician who died in 1369 A.D. is the author of excellent book on the plague. A severe plague which ravaged Alemaria in Spain in 1348-49 A.D. caused the celebrated physician to write a treatise on the plague which was superior to all earlier works on the subject. This book was edited and translated in Europe in the 15th century A.D. and revealed the contagious character of the plague and its remedies which were not known to Greek physicians.

The study of medicine in Europe began at Salerno (Sicily) where Constantine the African, a disciple of an Arab Physician organised the first medical school. The medical school of Montpellier soon followed suit, which was founded on the pattern of Cordova under the guidance of Jewish doctors. Other schools on the same lines were opened at Pisa and later at Padua (Italy) where Canon of Avicenna and the Surgery of Abul Qasim remained until the 17th century the text books of medical science throughout Europe. Robert Briffault writes, "The Pharmacopoeia created by the Arabs is virtually that which but for the recent- Synthetic and organotherapic--Apic preparations, is in use at the present day; our common drugs, such as nux vomica, Senna, Rknbarb, aconite, gention, myrrh, calomel and structure of our prescriptions, belong to the Arabic medicine.

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HOSPITALS IN MEDIAEVAL ISLAM


The Muslims, even in the days of early Islam; had, developed a high culture and had organised their administration on a sound footing. The Islamic Caliphates as well as other Muslim principalities had created separate departments for different subjects which were headed by Ministers and supervised by Secretaries. Organised on highly efficient lines was the public works department whose function was the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges as well as the provision of sanitation and medical facilities to all classes of people. Never before had medical facilities been provided for the common people on such a large scale and in such an organised form. The Muslims were the first to establish hospitals, dispensaries and medical schools in the world. "In the curative use of drugs," writes Philip K. Hitti, “some remarkable advances were made at this time by the Arabs. It was they who established the first apothecary shop, founded the earliest school of pharmacy and produced the first pharmacopoeia." Several pharmacological books were written by Arabs. The author of the first of these books was the celebrated Jabir bin Hayyan. The greatest medical theorists during mediaeval times were Zakariya Razi (Rhzes), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Tabari and Majusi. Among these Razi and Ibn Sina were also two of the outstanding practising physicians of their time.


Early period
Even before the anvent of Islam, Haris Ibn Kalda, ·a resident of Taif who had mastered medical science was welcomed in the court of the Persian emperor, Nausherwan, the Just. His son, Nasir Ibn Haris, earned an even greater reputation than his father as a physician and was instrumental in popularising medical science in early Islamic Arabia. Hazrat Omar, the second Caliph of Islam despatched a company of physicians along with the Arab army bound for Persia.

The Omayyad Caliphate represents a period of consolidation and proper organisation of Muslim resources. The third Omayyad Caliph, Walid Ibn Abdul Malik, who took much interest in public works, founded an institute for blind and disabled persons. He established the first medical dispensary in Islam in 88 A. H. and staffed it with a number of able physicians and surgeons. Soon afterwards dozens of small dispensaries sprang up all over the vast Omayyad empire.


Abbasids
The Abbasid Caliphate provided the most congenial atmosphere for the development of culture and the advancement of public welfare activities. The early hospitals in the Islamic domains were founded on the models of the old academy-hospitals of Jundeshapur and were named Bimaristan, The first hospital was founded at the beginning of the 9th century in Baghdad during the reign of the celebrated Abbasid Caliph Harun-ar-Rashid. Five more hospitals were established during the IOth century A.D. Greek and Persian methods of medical treatment were prevalent during the early period of the Abbasid Caliphate, but the talented Barmekides also introduced Indian methods. They invited a number of Indian raids, had their medical works translated into Arabic and founded a big dispensary in Baghdad in which patients were treated by Indian methods. Harun-ar-Rashid also created a separate department of health, which used to run several Government dispensaries staffed by talented physicians. The department was supervised by an Inspector-General of Health and Bukht Yishu was the first to be appointed to this high post in 171 A.H. The same post was occupied by his son Jabriel in 175 A.H. The medical practitioners were highly paid and Jabriel received ten thousand dirhams as his monthly salary and five thousand as allowances from the imperial exchequer. In addition he earned lacs through his private practice, mostly from high dignitaries of the State. His house and his person rivalled in luxury to that of the Caliph. According to the author of the Chahar Minar the biggest income of all the physicians was that of Bukht Yishu bin Jurjis. His salary from Harun-ar-Rashid was 10,000 dirhams a month. The value of presents received by him was estimated to be over 3,00,000 dirhams a year. From the house of the Caliph he received a retaining fee of 4,00,000 dirhams. He was also physician to the Barmekides who paid him 25,00,000 dirhams a year for his services. In addition to all this be received from his private practice about 5,00,000 dirhams a year. This amounts to a total income of not less than 40,00,000 dirhams a year which represents about- £1,75,000 per annum.

The maintenance of efficiency and high standards in the medical profession was also looked after. As early as the days of Mamun and Mutasim, pharmacists- had to pass a sort of proficiency test, before starting their practice.

In the reign of another Abbasid Caliph, al-Muqtadir Billah, the Medical Department registered phenomenal progress. His talented minister Ali Ibn Isa took a lively interest in public welfare activities. Sinan Ibn Thabit Ibn Qurra an eminent physician was the Inspector-General of Health. The outbreak of large scale epidemics in the Abbasid domains necessitated the expansion of the Health Department. A number of new hospitals were opened and a separate hospital was attached to each jail. A section of temporary dispensaries was also opened. Hundreds of physicians were appointed who toured the rural areas with mobile dispensaries and attended to ailing persons. In addition to these arrangements, Muqtadir Billah also founded several large hospitals, one of which was built on the bank of the river Tigris and spent about Rs. 35,000 a year. Another hospital built in his own name, had an annual expenditure of about Rs. 12,000. Due to the discovery of a case of malpractice, Sinan, who was the Inspector-General of Health, was ordered by the Caliph in 931 A.D. to test all practising' physicians and grant certificates to those who could satisfy him, Diplomas were awarded to successful candidates. Arrangements were made for practical instruction. Orthopaedists were examined as to whether they were acquainted with anatomy and surgery. Like surgeons, the ophthaImologists had to undergo a further test and were-forbidden to practise unless they knew the gross anatomy of the eye-ball. They had to satisfy the examiner that they knew the three principal diseases of the eye as well as their complications. Hence a system of medical proficiency tests was introduced and over 860 men passed the test in Baghdad alone and started their practice. In this way the Metropolis of Abbasids rid itself of its quaks.

Medical facilities were provided in the distant part of the far flung Abbasid domains. At least 34 hospitals were scattered all over the Islamic world during the Abbasid Caliphate and mobile clinics existed in the 11th century. The hospitals trained physicians as well as treating patients. They were divided into male and female sections and also contained medical libraries which offered courses in medicine.


Egypt
Egypt was somewhat backward in establishing centres.of medical facilities. According to Allama Maqrizi, a dispensary was opened in Cairo under the orders of Fath Ibn Khaqan, the Minister of Caliph Al-Mutawakkil Billah. The first hospital in Cairo was built by Ibn Tulun, the Governor of Cairo in 872 A.D., and it survived until the 15th century. The celebrated Governor had set aside property yielding Rs. 3 lakhs a year to meet the necessary expenditures of the hospital. He had made elaborate arrangements for the free boarding, lodging and dress of the patients. The hospital was equipped with all available medical facilities and had obtained the services of the best physicians who regularly examined the patients twice a day. A separate section of the building was reserved for the treatment of lunatics. The Governor himself visited the hospital on every Friday. Each of the two main sections of the hospital was divided into several halls. The biggest hall, meant for general medical cases, was partitioned into small rooms each serving a different disease. There were separate wards for surgical cases, eye diseases and orthopaedic cases. From the point of view of treatment the hospital was divided into two main sections--the out-patient department and the in-patient department.


Ayyubids and other dynasties
At a time when the dwindling Abbasid Caliphate was helpless to meet the greatest threat to Islam, Sultan Nuruddin Zangi and Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi successfully met the challenge and rolled back the surging waves of crusaders who had swarmed into the Holy land. These incessant military campaigns could not lessen their interest in the patronage of art and learning and they spent the major part of their income on public welfare activities. Allama Ibn Jubayr, who,on his way to Makkah in the 6th century A.H. passed through Baghdad, Mosul, Aleppo and Damascus found a network of charitable public welfare institutions there. Nuruddin had opened a big dispensary in Damascus which was called Nooviya which met.the expenses of indoor and outdoor patients. Another institution of the same type existed in Damascus.

In 577 A.H., Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi, better known in the west as Saladin, converted a large Fatimid Palace into a hospital. Allama Ibn Jubayr visited this grand hospital in Cairo and gives a detailed description in his Travelogue. It contained hundreds of beds for indoor patients and had a separate ward for female patients who were attended to by female staff only. A separate portion of the hospital, with spacious grounds bounded by high walls was reserved for the lunatics. This hospital was frequently inspected by the Sultan himself who kept a strict watch over it. The Sultan had also built another magnificent hospital in Alexandria.

The lead given by Sultans Nuruddin Zangi and Salahuddin Ayyubi was enthusiastically followed by others and well-to-do people vied with each other in founding public welfare institutions. In 678 A.H., when Mansur Qalaun ascended the throne of Cairo, he built a magnificent hospital in Cairo, which was second only to the Azdiya Hospital in Baghdad. The hospital was housed in four big buildings, occupying an area of 10,600 square yards. A canal which ·flowed throwgh the-hospital supplied it with water. The ruler had set aside property yielding a million dirhams per annum for its expenses. This hospital which was open to all had separate apartments for the treatment of patients suffering from different diseases. A teaching institution was also attached to this hospital.

The biggest hospital-of the world of Islam which was equipped with all available medical facilities was built by Azud-al-Daulah in 368 A.H. in Baghdad. This hospital which, with its spacious buildings, up-todate medical instruments, excellent arrangements and efficient administration could rank with the best hospitals built until the middle of the 19th century was in reality a Medical University. Drawn from all parts of the Islamic world were the more than eighty medical specialists including Ibn Baksh, Abu Yaqoob and Abu Isa who treated patients and also delivered lectures on various medical subjects.

The hospital, which took three years to be built, employed skilful ophthalmologists like Abu Nasr Ibn-ul-Duhali, surgeons like Abul Khair and orthopaedic surgeons like Abul Salh. According to Al-Qifti, ibn Manduyah of Isfahan was summoned from Central Asia. "All these (hospitals) were overshadowed" says a European writer, "by the hospital that he founded in Baghdad, complete with equipment, numerous trust funds and a pharmacy stocked in drugs brought from the ends of the earth". A list of diets and drugs used in this hospital is preserved in the British Museum in London. The main dispensary of the hospital was housed in a palatiai building. Benjamm of Tudela, a Jew-who visited Baghdad in 1160 A.D. found no less than sixty medical institutions there. He writes:-"All are well provided from the king's stores with spices and other necessaries. Every patient who claims assistance is fed at the king's expense' until his cure is complete There is another large building called the Darul Maraphtan in which are locked up all those insane persons who are met with during the hot season, everyone of whom is secured by iron chain until his reason returns, when he is allowed to return home. For this purpose they are regularly examined once a month by the king's officers appointed for the purpose, and, when they are found to be possessed of reason, they are immediately liberated. All this is done by the king in pure charity towards all those who come to Baghdad, either ill or insane, for the king is a pious man and his intention is excellent in this respect".'

A number of medical institutions and hospitals were opened in Baghdad and in the provinces during the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. In 1113 A.D., a hospital was opened in Baghdad by Khumastigin and was known as Tutushi hospital. A few years later a school for orphans was built by Mustufi Aziz-ud-Din who bore all the expenses of its residents. A hospital attached to a medical university was founded by Azud-al Daulah in Shiraz. Abu Said Kukuburi, built four asylums in Arbela for the blind and for persons suffering from chronic diseases.

The big hospitals like that of Azud-al Daulah employed a large staff both technical and administrative. The Chief Officer of the dispensary was called Shaikh Saydalani. The administration of the hospital was headed by a governor who used to be a non-technical man usually a general or prince. The post of mutwalli or dean was usually filled by a medical man. It was occupied by AI-Razi(Rhazes) at Rayy and later he was appointed mutawalli of the old hospital in Baghdad. Al-Jurjani held this post at Khwarizm.

One of the finest Islamic hospitals was built by Abdul Wahid al-Marakeshi in Morocco in about 1200 A.D. According to the writer of the Medical History of Persia, "The hospital was unequalled in the world. First there was selected a large open space in the most level part of the town. The workmen embellished with a beauty of sculpture and ornamentation even beyond what was demanded of them. All sorts of suitable trees and fruit trees were planted there. Water there was in abundance, flowing through all the rooms. In addition there were four large pools in the centre of the building, one of them was lined with white marble. The hospital was furnished with valuable carpets of wool, cotton, silk and leather, so wonderful that I cannot even describe them. For the use of patients there were provided day-dresses and night dresses, thick for winter, thin for summer. After he was cured, a poor patient received on leaving the hospital a sum of money sufficient to keep him for a time. Rich patients received back their money and clothes......Every Friday the Prince after the midday prayer mounted his horse to go and visit the patients and learn about each of them".

A number of hospitals and dispensaries were established in Makkah and Medina. In 628 A.H., the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mustansir Billah built a large dispensary in Makkah. Muslim India did not lag behind other countries in this humanitarian work and according to Allama Maqrizi, in the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq, Delhi alone possessed more than 70 dispensaries. The Moghal Emperor Jehangir had issued a proclamation for the establishment of a greater number of hospitals and dispensaries in his dominions. A Muslim physician in Cadiz (Spain) had planted in the park of the governor a botanical garden in which he cultivated rare medical herbs which he had brought from his travels.


Special Features
A military medical unit existed from the days of early Islam, and during the reign of the second Caliph such a unit was attached to each army. Sultan Mahmud, the Saljuq was first to organise military hospitals and mobile dispensaries on a regular basis. The military medical equipment of the Saljuq kings moved on hundred camels.

A post of Inspector-General of Hospitals was created during the Abbasid regime, which was usually occupied by the most outstanding physician of the Islamic world. Another post, that of Chief Chemist was also created, to head the Department which supervised the preparation of drugs. Zia Ibn Baytar, who was a great botanist and herbalist occupied this post in 646 A.H.

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HISTORIOGRAPHY


The desire to preserve the records of human achievement is a very primitive one and dates back to the earliest known civilization. Such records were laid down on stupas, stone slabs, wood and leather pieces, and are still preserved in the great museums of the world. The oldest book, written in Egypt, also relates to history, but the profound development of historiography and its elevation to the status of a science owes much to the genius of Muslirn historians. Writing in the History of Muslim Historiography Franz Rosenthal admits that 'Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing....The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the sociological understanding of history and the systematisation of historiography. The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking."

The sciences and arts which have beell cultivated under diverse civilizations may be traced to even earlier periods for their initial growth. Arguments and reasoning were used since time immemorial, but it was Aristotle who systematized the art of reasoning and gave it the name of logic. So it was with historiography. People always took pride in relating the achievements and exploits of their ancestors, but the Arabs, always had a particular attachment for their forebearers. The lineage of each dan was sacredly guarded against being forgotten by their progeny. Even the lineage of horses and camels were preserved by the Arabs.

The advent of Islam paved the way for the growth of historiography in Arabia. The abundance of historical data in the Holy Quran provided the followers of Islam with an incentive to study history. The learned discourses of the Holy Prophet of Islam were always punctuated with historical references to the past, which awakened an interest hitherto unknown, for historiography, among the adherents of the new faith. In the initial stages, historical events were mostly committed to memory which led to differences in the reports of the same speeches and events. The well known oration of Hajjaj bin Yusuf, on his first entry into Kufa has been differently reported by various historians. But later on, with the appearance of celebrated historians like Waqidi, Balazuri, Dinawari and Tabari large volumes of history were compiled. The works of some of these great historical minds have been translated into European languages. "The main task of mankind was accomplished by Muslims," says George Sarton. "The greatest philosopher, Al-Farabi was a Muslim; the greatest mathematicians Abul Kamil and Ibrahim Ibn Sinan were Muslims: the greatest geographer and encyclopaedist Al-Masudi was a Muslim; the greatest historian, AlTabari was still a Muslim."'

History has always been considered as the most important subject in the educational curriculum of Muslims. A thorough knowledge of history was essential for princes, ministers and scholars alike. No education was considered to be complete without a detailed background of history. Even the soldiers were taught the history of the rise and fall of different nations especially that of the Muslim powers.


Early Historians
The anxiety to know the minutest details about the life of the Holy Prophet and his gifted associates led to great efforts on the part of Muslims to acquire an authentic version of the facts and to preserve them for posterity. The traditions of the Holy Prophet collected by some of the celebrated historians of Islam formed the greatest biographical history that had ever been compiled. Arab traditionalists and historians devised many means of ascertaining the authenticity of the facts. The reports were obtained and compiled through a chain of reporters and transmitters whose trustworthiness and origin were fully investigated. This necessitated a knowledge of the history of the transmitters which ultimately led to the development of geography and biography among the Arabs. In the beginning the source of information was confined to oral reports only. One device adopted by the early historians of Islam in recording the facts was dating them by year, month and even by day. According to the historian Buckla,'this practice was not adopted in Europe before 1597 A. D.' Another method, that of historical research and criticism originated by the celebrated historian Ibn Khaldun and practised by the later historians both in the East and the West could not be surpassed even during modern times.

History provides one of the most copious sections of Arabic literature. A western orientalist WusTenfeld collected more than 590 historical works written in Arabic during the first thousand years of the Islamic era. The writing of history commenced during the Omayyad period and was developed during the Abbasid Rule. The author of Kashfuz Zunun gives a list of 1,300 history books written in Arabic during the first few centuries of Islam. Only a few historical works of the Omayyad period have survived. The early historians depended on the continuity of the chain of reports, more particularly on the authenticity and the integrity of the reporters while recording the facts and did not exercise much power of analysis, criticism, comparison or inference. The early historical compositions were mostly based on legends, traditions, biographies, genealogies and narratives obtained through a chain of intermediate oral reporters each of whom passed on the original report to his successor.

The composition of the real books of Islamic history started in the second century A. H. "In historical research" says Ameer Ali, "The Muslims have not been behind any other nation, ancient or modern....Archaeology, geography and ethnology were included in history....Between the simple work of Ibn Ishaq to the universal history of Ibn Khaldun there is a great difference, but the intervening space is occupied ·by a host of writers."'

Awanah bin al-Hakam, was among the transmitters of knowledge, who lived before the advent of books. He was a man of humble origin, his father being a slave tailor. He died either in 147 or 158 A. H. He was a great source of information for early Arab historians and is considered an authority on the Arab conquests.

Among early Arab historians, Ali bin Muhammad bin Abdulla Madaini occupies an outstanding place. He was a copious writer who was born in 135 A. H. and died in 225 A. H. He toured Basrah, Madain and later settled in Baghdad where he was patronised by the celebrated musician Ishaq al-Mausili. He had divided his works into groups of books--the first dealing with the records of the Prophet, the second with records of Quraish, the third with the marriage of nobles and the records of women, the fourth with records of the Caliphs from Hazrat Abu Bakr to Mutasim, the fifth with historical events in Islam, the sixth with Islamic conquest, the seventh with the records of the Arabs and the eighth with petical history. Madaini is cited as an authority by later historians. Yaqut in his historical dictionary of authors, gives a list of kutub muallafah, said to be written by Madaini. Abu Mikhnaf and Madaini are according to Brunnow well informed and impartial. The writing of Madaini influenced a number of writers including the Spanish Ibn Abd Rabbihi, whose collection of the speeches of Hazrat Ali has been preserved. His collection of the correspondence of Hazrat Ali, Muawiyah and others is considered to be very reliable.

Hisham bin Muhammad bin al-Sayyib al-Kalbi of Kufa was another historian who was much influenced by Madaini and adopted his method of approach as well as his subject matter. His list of works exceeded 150 and he is considered an authority on genealogies. One of his works Kilab-al-Asham has been printed. His books dealt with details on varied subjects relating to Arab life such as archaeology, religion, judges, kalzins and jinns. Of his 129 works listed by al Fihrist of Nadim, only three have survived. His other works were extensively quoted by later historians including Tabari and Yaqut. The oldest extant Arabic history is the biography of the Prophet written by Ibn Ishaq at the behest of the Abbasid Caliph Mansur. Ibn Ishaq died in 151 A. H.

Muhammad bin Omar al-Waqidi (130--207 A. H.) was the most outstanding historian of the second century of the Islamic era. He was a more serious writer than Madaini or Kalbi and was a pupil of Hazrat Sufian Sauri. He is considered an authority on tradition, Islamic jurisprudence and history. He possessed a big library which was loaded on 120 camels when it was moved from one part of Baghdad to the other. He was a prolific writer on varied subjects. His special attention to chronology has been commended by western writers. He wrote Maghazi which dealt with the conquests of Uqabah in West Africa. His secretary, Ibn Said wrote the first classified biography dealing with the life of the Holy Prophet of Islam and his companions.

As the record of events were mostly based on the verbal reports of eye-witnesses or persons connected with them, writers had to undertake extensive tours of distant lands, which led to the growth of travel, geographical and other literature connected with the various regions. History has always been popular among Muslims and during the second century, people became particularly interested in this subject.


Third Century
The third century of the Islamic era was a period of great intellectual attainments in the history of the Arabs. It was in this period that some of the brightest luminaries appeared on the horizon of Arab learning, whose light guided later writers in different branches of knowledge.

One of the earliest historians of the third century was Ahmad bin Yahya Balazuri, who died in 279 A. H. Like Tabari, he travelled extensively in quest of historical knowledge. His two extant historical works are Futuh-al-Buldan and Ansab-al-Ashraf. I;utuh-al-Buldan deals with the record of Muslim conquests and also describes the subsequent history of the countries concerned. His other book Ansabal-Ashraf (book of lineage of nobles) which was originally printed in 40 volumes is still in existence in Constantinople. The method followed in this book was to collect narratives dealing with particular events. The division of history into episodes makes the author go backward as well as forward in time. This work forms a link between the separate narratives of Madaini and the continuous history of Tabari.

Abu Hanifa Dinawari was an authority on astronomy and botany and also left behind valuable works on mathematics, geography, philosophy, literature and history. He wrote a work in 13 volumes on the Quran. Yaqut in his dictionary of authors gives a long list of books written by Dinawari on diverse subjects. His Al-Akhbar-al-Tiwal (Long narratives) is a universal history up to the period of Mutasim.

Another historian of this period Abdulla bin Muslim bin Qutaibah (213--270.A. H.) was the Kazi of Dinawar. He wrote several important treatises on literary subjects including Adab al-Katib which is one of the three authoritative works on literature, the other two being Kamil of Mubarrad and Bayan of Jahiz. His historical work entitled Kitab al-Ma'arif (Book of Knowledge) is a storehouse of information about the Holy Prophet and Arab genealogical table. He also wrote Book of Sovereignty and Government dealing with the history of the Islamic Empire upto the time of Harun-ar-Rashid.

Ahmad bin Ishaq bin Jafar Yaqubi, a great admirer of the house of the Prophet, devoted much space to their wise sayings. His arrangement of facts by reigns is a more modern system, than that used by Tabari who arranged his events chronologicaly.

Muhammad Ibn Jarir Abu Jafar al-Tabari (838 923 A. D.) is recognised as the father of Islamic history and as one of the world's greatest historians. Born in Tabaristan, the mountainous district of Persia situated alongside the Caspian Sea coast,Tabari is said to have learnt the Quran by heart at the age of seven. He received his education at Rayy, Baghdad, Wasit, Basrah, Kufa and Fustat (Cairo). He made extensive study tours of Persia, Iraq, Syria, Palestine and Egypt in quest of knowledge and to collect data for his historical works.

On one occasion he had to sell the sleeves of his shirt to buy bread. According to Yaqut (Volume VI, page 424) for forty years Tabari wrote 40 pages daily, Yaqut says that Tabari was contemplating the writing of two books - a history and a commentary on the Holy Qur'an of 30 thousand pages each, but his friends advised him that humanlife would not be sufficient to: write as well as to read through such gigantic works. Hence, Tabari reduced the two books to:l/lO, i.e., 3,000 pages each. Tabari lived for 85 years, died in 923 A. D. and was buried in Baghdad. among his pupils was Ahamd bin Kamil, the person to whom Miskawayh owes his guidance on history.

Among his works on diverse subjects, the two most outstanding which influenced later writers are the exhaustive commentary on the Quran and his universal history. His commentary on the Quran comprising about 3,000 pages is a standard book; and includes the largest collection of exegetical traditions. His monumental work is the universal history, which according to George Sarton is 'remarkably elaborate and accurate.'"All the books were eclipsed by the Annals of Tabari, whose fame lasts up to the present time The value of this bobk is very great--The author's selection of traditions is usually happy and the most important episodes were treated with most fulness of details." Several translated and abridged editions of the Annals of Tabari have been published. One of these in 13 volumes was published in Leyden. His history begins with the creation of the world and continues up to 302 A.H. (915, A.D.). This was the first elaborate and complete historical work in the Arabic language and was the chief source of information and guidance for later historians including Abul Fida, Tbn Athir, Miskawayh and Lbn Kamil. He arranged the events chronologically and, his annalistic method was followed ByAlWaqidi, Miskawayh, Ibn Athiiand Abul Fida. It is said that his original work on history was 10 times more voluminous than the surviving one. His other works include his voluminous legal treatise Ikhtilaf comprising 3,000 leaves, Tahdhibul Athar dealing with the traditions of the Prophet and Al-Baist, a jurist treatise.

Abul Faraj al-Isfahani (897--967 A.D.) wrote kitab al-dghani, a store-house of information on Arabic poetry, music and archaeology. It is an invaluable work on Arab antiquity, which has been called the "Register of Arabs" by Ibn Khaldun.

Arabic historical composition reached its highest point in Tabari and Masudi. Abul Hasan Ali al-Masudi (912-957 A. D.) known as the'Herodotus and Pliny' of the Arabs introduced the critical study of historical events and instead of grouping his events around years he grouped them around dynasties-a treatment which was later elaborated by Ibn Khaldun. He was very broad-minded, and had a profound knowledge of the rise and fall of the innumerable dynasties of the world. "He was also one of the first to make good use of the historical anecdotes." Masudi made an extensive study tour and wandered throughout the Islamic world in quest of first hand knowledge which enabled him to write his memorable work in 30 volumes known as Muruj al-Dhahab wa Madinal Jawahir (Meadows of gold and mines of gems). "In this encyclopaedic historio-geographical work," says Philip K. Hitti, "the author, with catholicity and scientific curiosity, carried his researches beyond the typically Muslim subjects into Indo Persian, Roman and Jewish history."' His other notable work al-Tanbih wal Ishraf outlines his philosophy of Nature and his theory regarding evolution.


Fourth century
The fourth century of the Islamic era, was also a period of great intellectual activity, which witnessed therise of the Buwayhids, who were great patrons of learned men.

Ibn Miskawayh who died in 1030 A D. is distinguished for treating history as an organic whole, displaying its human and instructive aspects. Miskawayh who held a high office in the court of the greatest of the Buwayhid, Abdul al-Daulah, is indebted for his historical knowledge to Ibn Kamil. the bio-grapher and disciple of Tabari. He was a philosopher and physician, and ranks among the leading Muslim historians. His universal history (979-80) known as Tajarib al-Umam deals with the period from earliest times to 980 A. D., and the last two volumes, according to a western critic, "contain original material and show him a writer of great talents." Miskawayh wrote copiously and informatively on the economy, taxation and military matters of the states. "He is singularly outspoken in his judgments and free from partisanship. Unlike Tabari, who is a theologian, he exhibits little religious partisanship", says a European writer.

The number of historical and biographical works written during the fourth century A. H. and after was very large. The most outstanding historians of this period were Masudi, Miskawayh, Beruni, Ibn Athir, Abul Faraj Isfahani, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Khalikan, Asakir and Suyuti. Beruni (973--1048, A.D.), the celebrated luminary of the court of Mahmud of Ghazna, wrote kitab-al-Hind which gives the most authoritative account of ancient India. The kitab al-yamini (history' of Mahmud of Ghazna) written by Utbi (d/1036) set an example of rhetorical composition in history which was followed by Imamud-Din (d/1201) in his historical works about Saladin, and the Saljuq dynasty.

Ibn Athir (1160-1234 A.D.) is the celebrated author of al-KamilJi al-Tarikh (The complete book of chronicles) which may be compared favourably with the best historical works of Europe. Another work composed by Ibn Athir known as Asad al-Ghabah (The lions of the thicket) is a collection of the biographies of the 7,500: companions of the prophet of Islam.

Ali bin al-HasanIbnAsakir (499-571 A. H.) who died in1177 A.D., was a great biographer. He travelled extensively like Khatib, another earlier historian. His-greatest work is al-Tarikh al-Kabir dealing with the life of the great men of Damascus. Originafly it was in 80 uolumes but at present it exists in 30 volumes only.

Another notable historian was Al-Jauzi (11861257 A.D.) a contemporary of Ibn Athir. He wrote Mirat al-Zaman fi Tarikh .al-Ayynm, a universal history starting from the beginning of the world upto 1256A.D. Taqiuddin Ahmad al-Maqrizi, a contemporary of Ibn Khaldun wrote-a monumental work on Egypt detailing the political, religious, social, commercial, archaeological and administrative conditions of that country. It is a mine of information on Egyptian antiquities and exhibits Jalaluddin Suyuti was a prolific writer, who wrote 560 works on theology, history and philosophy. His Tarikhul Khulafa is a popular history book on the subject.

The greatest historian of the later Abbasid period was Zbn Khalikan (1282 A.D.) the chief judge of Syria. His great biographical dictionary has earned international fame. Even before him Yaqut had written a dictionary of literati and Ibn Asakir had composed the life of the distinguished men of Damascus. But the biographical dictionary of Ibn Khalikan has earned a reputation for graphic description of personalities and clarity of vision hitherto unsurpassed.


Spanish Historians
Muslim Spain, which was the cradle of European civilization, has produced a number of well known historians. The history of Spain known as Al-Matin was written by Abu Maruan of Cordova in sixty volumes.

Abu Obaid Abdulla al-Bakri who flourished in Cordova and died in 1094 At D., was a renowned geographer whose Book on Roads and Provinces is a geographical compilation containing historical and ethnographical informations. He also wrote a dictionary of ancient Arabia. Abu-al-Walid Abdulla al-Earadi (1332--1406 A. D.) was the foremost biographer of Spain who wrote Tarikh Ulema Andalus.
Ibn Said al-qurtabi (1029--1070 A. D.) was a well known Muslim historian and astronomer of Spain who flourished in Toledo. In 1067-68, he wrote kitab al-tarif li tabaqat al-uman, on universal history. In another work, he dealt with the life and achievements of learned men--both Muslims and non-Muslims. Science received much attention in his historical work.

Lisan-al-din ibn al-Khatib (1313--1374 A.D.) was a contemporary of Ibn Khaldun. He held a high position under the Nasrid Sultan Yusuf Abul Hajjaj (1334-54 AD.) and his son. He was a victim of private intrigues. He was a versatile writer, who left behind him 60 works. The most important of these was his history of Granada.

Ibn Khaldun (1332--1406 A.D.) the talented Muslim philosopher of history and the greatest intellect of his age is one of the most outstanding thinkers that the world has ever produced. Being the founder of the science of sociology, Ibn Khaldun had the unique distinction of treating history as a science by supporting his facts with reasoning. "There is nothing in the Christian literature of the Middle ages," says a celebrated western critic, "worthy of being compared with it (Khaldun's history) and no christian wrote a version with such clearness and precision on any Muslim State."'

Born in Tunis (North Africa) Ibn Khaldun had a chequered career during his early life, taking active part in the intriguing power politics of the small North African principalities, enjoying alternately the favour as well as disfavour of the rulers and at times taking refuge in the distant Granada. His revolutionary spirit, being fed up with the dirty politics of those times, was obliged to take a short respite of about four years in the suburbs of Tunis, where he completed his immortal Prolegomena in 1377 A. D. Thereafter he shifted to Tunis to finish his masterly work Kitab al-Ibar (World History). Here he could take advantage of the reference books available in the Imperial Library.

Ibn Khaldun has acquired world wide reputation and occupies the outstanding place amongst the galaxy of the world's historical philosophers. He is distinguished from the rest of the historians, because he treated history as a science and not merely as a narrative. He wrote history in the light of his new method of explanation and reasoning and developed it as a social philosophy. Explaining the art of writing history, Ibn Khaldun says in Prolegomena, "It is only by an attentive examination and well sustained application that we can discover the truth, and guard ourselves against errors and mistakes. In fact, if we were merely to satisfy ourselves by reproducing the records transmitted by tradition without consulting the rules furnished by experience, the fundamental principles of the art of Government, the Nature, even, of the particular civilization, or the circumstances which characterise the human society; if we are not to judge the wants which occurred in the distant times by those which are occurring under our eyes, if we are not to -compare the past with the present, we can hardly escape from falling into errors and losing the way of truth."' He being the originator of sociology, philosophical history and political economy, his works possess striking originality, recording a new system in the understanding and explaining the social phenomena as well as an understanding, criticising and analysing history.' He has divided his historical work into three parts. The first part known as his. famous Prolegomena deals with society and its origin, sovereignty, the birth of towns and villages, trades, means of livelihood and sciences. This is the: best part of the book, in which the writer ascends. the summits of creativeness, reviewing the diverse subjects like political economy, sociology and history with striking originality and brilliance. The statement of Farabi about the origin of towns and villages is only theoretical, while Khaldun has viewed it from a social point of view. The third chapter of the book deals with the state and sovereignty. In it the learned author has propounded his advanced political theories which were later incorporated in the works of such celebrated political thinkers as Machiavelli and Vice. Machiavelli's Prince, written in the stormy days of Italy,a century later, bears a close resemblance to Prolegonoena and it is probable that the celebrated Italian borrowed some of his ideas from the works of Ibn Khaldun. "At any rate", says Prof. Gumplowicz, "the priority must rightly be attributed to the Arab sociologist, as regards those counsels which Machiavelli, a century later gave to the rulers in his Prince

The third part of his great historical work, Kitabal-lbar which comprises two volumes, deals elaborately with the history of the Berbers and other neighbouring tribes. It also contains the autobiography of the author, known as Al-Taarif. Before him autobiographies were written in diary form, events having no connection with each other. Ibn Khaldun was the first to write a long systematic autobiography. The Al-Taarif may favourably be compared with the autobiography of Benvenuti Cellini the well-known Italian artist. Both have an air off rankness in them. "Ibn Khaldun" writes De. Beer, "is undoubtedly the first who tried to explain fully the evolution and progress or society, as being caused by certain causes and factors, and to explain the characteristics of race, climate, the means of production, etc., and their effects on the formation of man's mind and sentiment, as well as the formation of society. In the march of civilization he· perceives an organised internal harmony"."

Paying glowing tributes to Khaldun's genius and achievements, Philip K. Hitti writes, "As one who endeavoured to formulate laws of national progress and decay, Ibn Khaldun may be considered the discoverer as he himself claimed of the true scope and nature of history or at least the real founder of the science of sociology. No Arab writer, inded no European, had ever taken a view of history at once so comprehensive and philosophic. By the consensus of all critical opinion, Ibn Khaldun was the greatest historical philosopher Islam produced and one of the greatest of all time".' "Not only is he the greatest historian of the Middle ages", says George Sarton, "towering like a giant over a tribe of pygmies, but one of the first philosophers of history, a forerunner of Machiavelli, Bodin, Vice, Comte and Cournot"."

There was no dearth of Arabic historians and biographers after Ibn Khaldun. During the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods a number of cornprehensive histories and biographies were written in Egypt. A number of brilliant historical works and chronicles were written during the Mughal period in India including Ain-e-Akbari of Abul Fatal and Tozak-eJahangiri, written by Emperor Jehangir. Mulla Badayuni and Ziauddin Barni were celebrated historians of the Muslim period in India.

Historiography has always been the favourite subject of study in Muslim Societies both high and low. Its unique growth under Muslim patronage may be due to certain causes. "Historiography was instrumental," explains Franz Rosenthal, "in firmly planting into the hearts of a large number of Muslims the ideals and aspirations of Islam. Historiography also served to keep alive the memory of the significance of their distinctive national heritage for the various nations of Islam...... It always maintained a position in which it was able to stimulate a certain interest in valuable aspects of cultural activity which were in danger to be entirely eliminated from Muslim life. Besides in its close association with biography, historiography was the only effective vehicle in Islam for concrete self-expression and for the factual observation of life, for looking at life as it was and for analysing man and his aspirations as the sole source of cultural developments".l

Thus Muslims, being highly politically minded and immensely attached to their ancestral traditions have made great contributions to the development of historiography in the world.

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POLITICAL SCIENCE


The conception of Political Science has undergone a great change since the time of Ibn Khaldun, the originator of modern sociology and politics. He gave a totally new outlook to political science and developed it on a different line--a line which was scrupulously followed by such great political scientists as Vico and Machiavelli. Politics as it is today, was. foreign to the earlier mediaevel political theorists who confined their treatises to the record of the characteristics of a good ruler and his relations with his subjects. But, whatever, political thought existed during the Mediaevel era, owed its growth to the genius of such political thinkers as Al-Mawardi and Nizamul Mulk Toosi.

Even earlier, the instructions given by the Prophet of Islam and his worthy successors including Hazrat Omar Farooq and Hazrat Ali to their lieutenants and governors on the policy to be followed in the civil administration and towards their non-muslim subjects, will undoubtedly form an invaluable part of political administration for all times to come. In fact, the seeds of real democracy were sown by the second Caliph of Islam in the instructions which he had issued to his governors in which he asked them to live like common people. He himself practised what he preached and translated his ideas into practice. Mr. Gandhi once asked the Congress Ministers of India to follow the ideals and example of the second Caliph of Islam.

The Abbasid Caliphate, which is considered the Golden Period of Islamic intellectual development produced some of the greatest Muslim historians who also wrote on political science. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Muslim Ibn Qutaibah who flourished in Baghdad and died in 889 A.D was the earliest Muslim writer on political science. He is the author of Uyun Al-Akhhar, a work in 10 volumes in which he has laid down the functions of the head of state and the principles which should guide him in selecting high functionaries.

Shihabuddin Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Ali Al-Rabi, was another political writer of repute who compiled his Suluk UI Muluk Fi Tadbir il Mamulik during the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Mustasim in which he laid down his ideas about knowledge, sovereignty, the administration of justice, revolution, wealth and slavery. His writings are free from all partisanship.

Abu Nasr Farabi, was one of the greatest intellectual giants that the Muslim world has produced and, according to George Sarton was "conversant with the whole scientific Thought of his age. He was thoroughly versed not only in philosophy, logic, politics, occult sciences and sociology but also in mathematics, medical sciences and music".' He was an encyclopaedist, an outstanding mathematician and physician, an occult scientist, an eminent philosopher and a distinguished musician. According to reliable historical sources he left behind him more than a hundred works on diverse subjects, but only 15 or 20 are still extant. He has written no less than five treatises on politics namely a 'Summary of Plato's Laws', Siyasat al-Madaniyah, Ara ahl al-madinah al-fazilah, Jawami al-Siyasat, and Ijtimn'at al-Manaiziyah. In fact he has made a lasting contribution to sociology by writing his memorable work, Ara Ahl al-madinah fazilah, (Epistle on the opinions of people of the superior city) thus paving the way for the immortal Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun. It was translated and published by Dieterici as Philosophia de Arabar and later on as Dur Mustcarstaat Von Alfarabi. Farabi has presented his conception of a model city in his well-known work Slyasnt al-Madaniyah (Political Economy) in which he seems to have been inspired by the Republica of Plate and Politica of Aristolle. His ideal city is to be governed by wise men, who are perfect both morally and intellectually. He lays great stress on the happiness and high morality of the citizens of his model city. The book in 34 Chapters, translated and edited by Dieterici is of great sociological interest.

Ikhwan-al-Safa, a group of celebrated authors headquartered at Basrah during the second half of the tenth century A.D. compiled in 52 tracts, Rasail Ikhryanal-Safa, the philosophical and scientific knowledge of their age. They divided politics into five parts namely the Prophetical, Monarchical, Public, Private and Personal.

Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Pcllawardi born in Basrah in 1072 A.D. was an eminent statesman and a prolific writer on diverse subjects like Religion, Ethics, Literature and politics. The Abbasid Caliph Al-Qadir Billah (381--422 A.H.) held him in great esteem and Qaim bi Amrillah (391--460 A.H.) the 26th Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad had made him his roving ambassador. Al-Mawardi was a Political economist, and his monumental work Al-Ahkam-us-Sulsaniyah occupies an important place amongst the political treatises written"during mediaeval times. He wrote four treatises on Political Science, namely:- (1) AI-Ahkam-us-Sultaniyah. (Laws concerning rulership), (2) Adab-al- Waziv (Ethics of the Minister), (3) Siyasat-ul-Malik (Kings Politics), and (4) Tahsil-un-Nasr-wat-Tajil-us-Zafar (Facilitating the conquest and hastening victory).

Of these the first two books have been published. His Al-Akham-us-Sultaniyah which has been translated into several languages including French and Urdu is an invaluable work on Islamic public laws. The Adab-al- Wazir deals with the functions of the Prime Minister and lays down sound advice on public administration. He had much personal experience of practical politics, as, on several occasions, he was sent by the Caliph of Baghdad on diplomatic missions to neighbouring states. His wise statesmanship was, to a great extent, responsible for maintaining the prestige of the diminishing Caliphate of Baghdad over the too powerful and almost independent Saljuq and Buwayhid Amirs.

Abu Ali Hasan Ibn Ali Ibn Ishaq better known as Nizamul Mulk Toosi, was the celebrated grand Vazier ofthe Saljuq Ruler, Malik Shah. Being one of the ablest and most talented Prime Ministers that the Muslim world has produced, Nizamul Mulk Toosi ranks high among the great administrators and statesmen of the world. He was born in 1017 A.D. near Pus, received his higher education at Baghdad and successfully served as the minister of the two successive Saljuq rulers, Alp Arsalan and Malik Shah. He was a great patron of learning and was the distinguished founder of the world famous Nizamiyah University of Baghdad. He was the principal figure behind the glorious reign of Malik Shah Saljuqi. Nizamul Mulk wrote in 1092 A.D. for the guidance of Malik Shah, his monumental political treatise Siyasat Namah which stands as a landmark in the annals of political treatises written during Mediaeval times. Being an able administrator he has incorporated his practical experiences in this book which served as the 'Magna Charta' for an ideal state. It deals with such topics as kingship, judiciary, espionage, ambassadorship, the functions and qualifications of all classes of officers, etc. It was written in the Persian language and contained 50 Chapters.

Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058--1111 A.D.)known as 'Algazel' in the west was one of the most eminent thinkers of Islam. Being appointed the distinguished Principal of the celebrated Nizamiyah University of Baghdad at an early age of 34 years, Imam Ghazali wielded great political, spiritual and social influence over the world of Islam and was held in high esteem by the Caliph. But at last he was fed up with the artificiality and the pageantry which pervaded the social life of Baghdad. His soul yearned for something else which was not available in the theoretical knowledge obtained through books. So he resolved to make a spiritual pilgrimage and renouncing all his worldly comforts, left Baghdad and for a number of years roamed about like a hermit in quest of spiritual knowledge. He incorporated his experiences with truth in his brilliant work Ihya al-Ulum which inspired later writers and brought about the revival of Mysticism. In this immortal work he has exposed the so called philanthropists and social workers whose charitable and social works are generally guided by selfish motives. He had tried to find out persons who were responsible for the social degeneration. He had a wide knowledge of the inner life of the ruling class as well as that of the religious heads and he has drawn his conclusions in these memorable words, "'The morals of the subjects have deteriorated because the life of the ruling class has much degenerated which is the ultimate result of the moral weakness of the religious heads. The Ulema have sold their conscience to the lust of wealth and power" His political ideas are found in a number of his works including Ihya al- Ulum, Manqidh Min Dalal, Tibr al-Masbuq, Sirr al-Alamain, Fatihah al-Lllum, 'Kimiya-i-Saadah, Iqtisad fi al-Itiqad and Kitab al-Wajiz.

He had dealt with multifarious political and social topics which agitated the minds of mediaeval political thinkers namely democracy, constitution, judiciary, functions of the head of state and its executive, slavery and civil administration.

The Qabus Namah dealing with the functions of the ruler and high functionaries of the state was written by Amir Unsur-al-Ma'ani Kaikaus Ibn Sikandar Ibn Washmgir in 1082 A.D. It is a political treatise of considerable importance.

Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn al-Walid Ibn Muhammad Ibn KhalafIbn Sulaiman al-Turtushi (1060--1126 'A.D.) known as Ibn Abi Randaqa is the author of the monumental political treatise, Siraj al-Muluk. It contains sixty-four Chapters, in which political thought has been subordinated to ethical considerations. This work had a great influence on contemporary and later political thinkers including the celebrated Ibn Khaldun.

As has been noted earlier, Ibn Khaldun, Muslim historian and political philosopher, was one of the greatest intellects of his age and one of the most outstanding thinkers of all times. His contributions to the study and development of historiography were of singular importance and have been described in a previous chapter. He also proved to have remarkable insight into social and political phenomena and advanced a number of political theories which were later accepted by other political thinkers.

Ibn Khaldun's summary of the qualities required of a ruler, as stated in his monumental work Kilab al-lbar is worth quoting here: "The sovereign exists for the good of the people ... The necessity of a Ruler arises from the fact that human beings have to live together and unless there is some one to maintain order, society would break to pieces". He observes that "there is a constant tendency in an oriental monarchy towards absolutism, towards unlimited power, so undoubtedly the tendency of the oriental governors was towards greater and greater independence of central authority". Earlier al-Mawardi had pointed out the unlimited powers of the governors during the declining period of the Abbasid Caliphate, when the governorship was acquired through usurpation and the central authority had little control over them. Ibn Khaldun was more realistic in his approach towards the solution of intricate political and social problems, at a time when the Muslim world was passing through the most critical phase of its existence.

The later political thinkers, both in the East and the West were deeply influenced by the writings of Ibn Khaldun.