MUSIC


Muslims have the distinction of being the pioneers in the sphere of fine arts in the world. They have patronised and actively participated in the propagation of fine arts wherever they have gone. A wrong impression has been created in the minds of our educated class by the orthodox type of people that Islam forbids all pursuits of fine arts by the Faithful-an idea which does not stand the test of historical records. The Muslims whether Spaniards or Arabs, Persians or Afghans, Turks or Indians have exhibited a lively interest in the development of fine arts which ultimately led to produce in their ranks some of the greatest exponents of these arts.


Arabian
According to H. G. Farmer, the celebrated writer on oriental music, "music accompanied the Arabs from the cradle to the grave, from the lullaby to the elegy. Every moment of his life seems to have had its particular music--joy and sorrow, work and play, battle throng and religious exercise".' Arabs were the great exponents of music and according to another western critic, "The cultivation of music by Arabs in all branches reduces to insignificance the recognition of this art in the history of any other country."

Under the Abbasid, Spanish and Saljuqid kings music was elevated to the rank of a science., its cultivation was officially patronised and it was recognised as a fine art. People had developed a taste for music and according to Ameer Ali, "A large literature grew up on the subject; songs were collected and classified according to their melodies and keys, and the musical instruments of the ancients were improved and new ones invented.”

The first known Arab author on music is Yunus AlKatib (d/765 A.D.) who was followed by Al-Khalil (d/791 A.D.) who has the unique distinction of being the "Systematiser of Arab Prosody and the first Arabian lexicographer". His theories were borrowed by Ibn Firnas who popularised them in Spain. Some of the earliest contribtutions of Arab Muslims on music were Al-lqd-al-Farid and Kitab-al-Aghani written about 1,000 years before. During the 1Oth century A.D. music was included in the course of mathematics and was studied as such by the mathematical student. The celebrated Arab writers on music are Al-Rindi, Thabit bin Qurra, Sarakhsi, Ziryab, Al-Khwarizmi anci Ibn Firnas. The most outstanding Muslim theorists on music are Farabi, Ibn Sina, Toosi, Ishaq Mausili, Isfahani, Razi and Shirazi who were actually Persian nationals but adopted the Arabic language as the medium of their expression.

Al-Kindi (d/260 kH.) is one of the greatest Arab theorists, who has written about a dozen treatises on music. "In one of which" says G. Sarton, "we find the first definite use of notation among Arabs. He is the earliest Arab writer on music whose work has come down to us".' His works contain a notation for the determination of pitch. Out of his-seven treatises on music three have been preserved upto the present time, namely: The essentials of knowledge in music, On the melodies, The necessary book in the composition of melodies. Ahmad Ibn Muhammad AlSarakhsi (d1286 A.H.) and Mansur Ibn Talha bin Tahir who were disciples of Al-Kindi wrote a number of books on the composition of Melodies. The former has the distinction of writing at least half a dozen books on the subject. Thabit Bin Qurra, (d1288 A.D.), the famous mathematician, enriched Arabic music with his valuable contributions.

Ibn Abd Rabihi (d/940 A.D.) was a great exponent of music who championed the cause of music in his famous work The unique necklace which contains the biographies of prominent musicians aswellas"a spirited defence of music against the puritans"

Al-Buzjani (di998 A.D.), one of the greatest Arab mathematicians composed a compendium on the sciences ef rhythm. Ikhwan-al-safa (1Oth century A.D.), well-known writers association of the era, wrote a treatise on music which was widely read and appreciated.

Al-Khwarizmi, the greatest mathematician of the Islamic world is the author of the Key of sciences in which he discussed the theory of music. His views on music which were conveyed to Europe through the translation of the work by Adelard of Bath in the 12th century.A.D, was according to Philip K. Hitti "one of the first to introduce Arab music into the Latin world".' Alam Al-Din Qaisar (d 1251 A.D.) an eminent mathematician of Egypt has earned a distinguished place among Arab Theories on music due to his valuable contributions.


Spanish
The Arabs of Spain did not lag behind other Arab countries in the pursuit of fine arts and produced a number of outstanding theoretical as well as practical musicians.
Ziryab was patronised by Abdur Rahman II and he has the distinction of running a model musical academy at Cordova which according to a western writer "became the conservatory of Andalusian music" He was an outstanding musician of his time who had migrated from Baghdad to Spain. Both in theoretical and practical music he has earned a very high reputation. He was the head of a family of talented musicians .
Ibn Firnas, the eminent musician who introduced oriental music into Spain, was the first who taught the science of music in Andalusia. He popularised the theories of Al-Khalil in Spain.

Ibn Bajja or Avempace (d/1138 A.D.); He is knownas theFarabi of the West. He was an outstanding musical theorist whose musical theories received the same reception in the West as those of Farabi in the East.

Seville became a great centre of music in the 11th century A.D. and developed into a big market, for manufactured musical instruments. Europe learnt Arabic music through Spain while the Chinese acquired it from Baghdad. "Arab Music", says G. Sarton, "Was crossing the Pyrenees upon the wings of Song. Troubadours, Trouvers, and Minne singers popularised the new art and improved it" According to Farmer, "the greatest contributions of the Arabs was in the field of mensural music. Arabs supplied Europe with the name and forms of musical instruments. The English words like lute, rebec, guitar, organ and naker were derived from the Arabic AE-ud, Rabab, Qitara, Urghun and Nagqara".'

"With these instruments came several material benefits", says a European writer. "European minstrels, prior to the Arabian contact, only had the cithara and harp among stringed instruments and they only had their ear to guide them when tuning. The Arabs brought to Europe their lutes, pandores and guitars with the places of notes fixed on the fingerboard by means of frets, which were determined by measurement. This alone was a noteworthy advance. Indeed, it was perhaps the fretting of the Arabian lute that registered the employment of the major mode for Europe"."


Persian
The source of Arabian music may be traced to early Persian and Byzantine works. Long before the advent of Islam, Persians were the pioneers of music in the East. In the early days of Islam, the mensural music adopted by Hijaz and other theories connected with it had been influenced by Persian elements. Inspite of these borrowings there was a marked difference between Arabian, Persian and Byzantine music and later on the Persians also borrowed from the developed Arabian art. The golden period of Persian music begins with the 1Oth century A. D., when Persia produced some of the greatest musicians the world has ever known. The greatest luminaries amongst these were Farabi, Ibn Sina, Razi, Nasir-ud-din Toosi, Isfahani and Momin. Persia, the land of culture and arts has made invaluable contributions to the development of music.

Ishaq Al-Mausili (d/850 A. D.) recast the "Old Arabian system" and put forward his theories in a Book of Notes and Rhythms. He was attached to Abbasid court and being the master musician of his time he was the teacher of several talented musicians including Ziryab. He was a great patron of art and learning.

Isfahani wrote his celebrated musical work Great Book of ,Songs in the 1Oth century A. D. The book contains songs which were suitable for functions and occasions from the cradle to the grave. Different types of songs and music were prescribed for different functions and occasions. There were suitable songs for war and peace, rejoicings and mournings. As Ibn Khaldun says, "No art begins until there were artists. We see a professional class of musicians in pre-Islamic days, and with the rise of the Caliphate, this class was held in highest esteem" The monumental work of Isfahani--The great book of songs, runs into 21 volumes which according to Ibn Khaldun may be called the "Diwan of Muslims". He has also written other books on music.

Al-Ghazali, born in 1058 in Toos, a small village of Khorasan, a province of Persia, rose to the high position of the celebrated principal of the Nizamiyah University. He has written a treatise on Music and ecstasy. Inspite of the legal condemnation by theologians the spiritual effect of music was clearly recognised. The Sufi looked upon it as a means of revelations attained through ecstasy, whilst the dervish fraternities regulated their rituals by it. The patronage of music by Sufis produced some outstanding writers on the subject including Alghazall who in his celebrated work Music and ecstasy, says, "Ecstasy means the state that comes from listening to music", and gives seven reasons for holding that singing is a very potent factor for producing ecstacy.

Abu Nasr Farabi, born in Farab (Persia) is the greatest musical theorist the Muslim world has produced. He died in 950 A.D. He composed several outstanding works on music. Among his books were the Grand book on music (Kitab Mausiqal Kabir), and Styles in Music on the classification of Rhythm. Besides the above, he has also dealt with musical topics in two of his voluminous works on the sciences--the Classificatian of the sciences and the Ongin of the Sciences. His Grand Book on Music, is recognised as the highest authority on the theory of oriental music and according to Farmer, a well known writer on Oriental Music, this work of Farabi, "deserves to be ranked as one of the greatest works that has been written on music" Out of the several great works of Farabi on music Kitab Mausig aKabir has survived which has been recognised as the most important treatise on the theory of oriental music. According to Farabi he wrote this book because he found that the earlier books written by Greeks, Romans and Persians were full of obscurities and short-comings. Farmer pays glowing tribute to this great work of the famous musician, saying, "Al-Farabi's treatment of physical and physiological principles of sound and music is certainly an advance on that of the Greeks". Farabi has made a detailed reference of musical instruments which is non-existent in the works of the Greeks. He invented the musical instruments Rabab and Qanun He also knew mensural music and recognised the major third (4:5) and the minor third (5:6) as consonances. Al-Farabi made a valuable contribution to physiological acoustics, which was not touched by the Greeks. He was also an outstanding practical musician of his time and when he played the flute in the presence of his patron Saif-ud-daulah he used to cast a spell over the audience directing their sentiments as he liked so as to cast his hearers into a fit of laughter, drew tears from their eyes and made them all asleep. Undoubtedly Farabi, a versatile genius is the greatest theoretical musician that Persia has produced. The works of Farabi had an universal appeal and influenced the musical thought of the West as well as Muslim Spain. According to Farmer"Al-Farabi still continued to attract the attention of the scholars until the 17th century A. D.".'

Ibn Sina (980--1037 A.D.), a Persian national was the greatest thinker and encyclopaedist of Islam who ranks next to Farabi as the Musical Theorist. His Kitab-al-Shifa a philosophical encyclopaedia of repute also contains much original work on music. He also wrote an introduction to the art of music, whilst a few definitions regarding music are also found in his book Division of Sciences. The work of Ibn Sina considerably influenced the western writers of the subject and Roger Bacon recognised the contribution of Ibn Sina on the therapeutic value of music. According to a western critic, "Both Farabi and Ibn Sina are claimed to have added to what the Greek taught". Persians have made valuable contributions to the theory of the physical bases of sound, specially regarding the spherical propagation of sound.

The great oriental physician Al-Razi born in Rayy (Persia) in 865 A. D. has also contributed to the theoretical side of music.

Nasir-ud-din Toosi, a prolific writer on multifarious subjects, born in Toos, a village of Persia has written two books on music (1) Kitab Ji Nmi Mausiqi and (2) Kanzul Tuhaf The musical theories of Toosi were elaborated by his great disciple Qutb-ud-din.

Saif-ud-din AI-Momin,(294A.D.) a Persian by birth and one of the greatest theorists of music has expounded his theories on music in his celebrated books SharaJiyya and "Book of musical Modes" (Kitab al-ddwar). He laid down a new theory of scales in which the octave was divided into 17 intervals, which according to Sir H. Parry is, "the most perfect ever divided" Haji Khalifa says, "He was amongst those taking the front rank in the writers on the theory of Music" He was also a practical musician and had the distinction of inventing two stringed instruments(1) The Mughari (an archlute) (2) Nuzha (a kind of a psaltery). Numerous commentaries have been written on the theories of Momin.

Qutub-ud-din Al-Shirazi, a disciple of Nasir-ud-din Toosi wrote Durrat-e-Taj which is counted as one of the most authentic contributions on the systematic theory of music.

Abul Faraj Al-Afghani, wrote his great compendium Kitab al-Afghani, which is a remarkable contribution to the subject. This monumental work was published in 20 volumes by the Bulaq Press, Cairo in 1868. According to several Western critics of Music, the Western World during the last 1,000 (Thousand) years has produced nothing to compete with this book. This book may rightly be called the encyclopaedia of oriental music.
Besides the above other notable Persian Theorists on Music are Abdul Qadir Ibn Ghaibi and Amuli.

Persians were also responsible for giving verse forms to vocal music, such as the ode and many shorter forms like Qita (Fragments), Ghazal (Love songs) and the more popular Mawals. Of these Zajal and Muwanshah were introduced into Europe. Persians also invented many new musical instruments which were adopted and became very popular both in the East and the West. Of these "Al-iud" (Flute) Tabl (drum) Tanbur (Pandore), Qanun (Psaltery), Nay (Flute) are noteworthy ones whose introduction revolutionised the practical music of the world .

Persian Muslims have undoubtedly made the greatest contribution to the cultural treasures of Islam and it was they who played the dominant part in the Islamic development of sciences and arts. In the contribution to music Persian theorists and practical musicians have had the lion's share and some of the celebrated works of the famous Persians like Farabi, Ibn Sina and Momin are unparalleled in the annals of the musical works of the world.


Musical Instruments
Arabs and Persians who produced many of the outstanding theorists and practical musicians of mediaeval times invented many musical instruments which were adopted and became popular throughout Europe, Asia and Africa. One of these was Mizaf which was very popular and which included all open string instruments including the lyre, the cithara, the harp the psaltery and the dulcimar. The Ud or lute was one of the earlier instruments commonly used during the first century A.H. which according to a western writer was "the most important musical instrument of Islamic people from the Atlantic to the Persian Gulf. Two kinds of Ud were used in those times. The Persians called their's Barbar and made no provision for a separate neck while the Arabs added a neck to it.

The musical instruments used by the Arabs during the early periods of Islamic history were Tanbur (Pandore) and Mizmar. The only difference between the Tanbur and lute was that the latter had a smaller sound chest and longer neck. Mizmar were the wind instruments which were very popular among Arabs. The flute belongs to the same category and it was much used by Persians. Farabi had described the Mizmar as having eight holes for the movement of fingers over it, which was called Nay or Swnay by the Persians.

The Qadib or "Wand and Duff" or Tambourine are percussion instruments. The Duff acquired great popularity in different parts of the world where it was known by different names, namely--Dep in Iran Defik in Kurdistan, Dep in Albania and Adufe in Iberia. The Spanish Moors were responsible for popularising Duff and Tamboure De Basque throughout the length and breadth of Europe.

The musical instrument which was commonly used in martial and processional music throughout the Islamic Domains was the "Buk" or horn or trumpet which were of different types namely Karn, Nafrr, Shabbzlr and Karana. These were made of conch or of horn or of metal and were either straight or crooked in shape.

The Tabl was the most important instrument of martial music. It was of two types--the cylinder type and the bowl type. Drums and kettle drums were also commonly used in martial music.

During the early period of Islamic History the Sanjo was very popular among the Omyyads which was played to regulate the rhythm in dancing. It was of different shapes and sizes.

The Abbasid Caliphs were great patrons of sciences and arts and during their periods theoretical as well as practical music registered phenomenal progress. Zalzal a musician of repute attached to the court of the Abbasids invented a new type of Ud known as Ud Shabbur which may correctly be called a 'perfect lute'. Ziryab another musician improved upon the existing lute and introduced strings made of silk and entrails of young lions, which were much superior to the old ones. The Shabrud or arch lute was another musical instrument of importance introduced during the Abbasid reign. It was very popular in Baghdad. The Rabab a stringed musical instrument which is played with a gawn (stringed bow) was also invented during this period. This instrument has retained its popularity even up to the present time.

The Qitara which was later named Guitar in Europe was very much in use during the reign of the Moors in Spain.

Several types of bells or Jaras, large as well as small accompanied processional and martial music and were sometimes used in such manner as to increase the din of the battle so as to affright the enemy.


Indian
The enlightened West has considered all people inhabiting the vast Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent as Hindus--hence Indian music has wrongly been taken to be entirely contributed by the Hindus. Unfortunately the western historians being inspired by their Hindu counterparts have not only ignored the cultural, political and artistic enterprises of Muslim India but they have formed a biased opinion in favour of the Hindus. Not withstanding their profound efforts in under-rating the cultural achievements of Muslims, such well-known historians and critics as Sir William James, Lt.-Col. James Tod, Augustus, W. Hunter Surendra Mohan Tagore, Anand Kumar Swami and Prof. Ranade had to admit though half-heartedly the valuable part played by Muslims in the development of Indian music. The Muslims since the time of Ameer Khusro who lived in the reign of Alauddin Khilji formed the vanguard of all cultural movements in India and were the pioneers in the domains of music. Ameer Khusro, born in 1253A.D. at Pati Pali near Kanauj (U. P.) was a master musician, a man possessing extraordinary abilities and a versatile taste. He wrote enchanting geets and composed many new songs. which acquired great popularity even during his lifetime. He also invented a new type of Sitar. He enriched Indian music through his compositions, and innovations of Khiyal, Kaul Kalbana, Zelf, Ghaza, Kadar and Tarana. Sazgiri and Khiyal composed by him formed the culmination of his achievements which has earned an eminent place for him in the domains of Indian music. Prof Ranade writing in his book on Indian Music says, "At the close of the 13th century when Muslims conquered Deccan after overthrowing the Devagiri ruler, the Islamic music began to influence the Indian music".' According to latest historical researches the originator of a new type of music in Northern India was Ameer Khusro, who not only formed new avenues but developed them to a high degree. Even after a lapse of 700 years, he is considered an authority in many branches of theoretical and practical Indian Music. Nawab Zulqadar Durgah Quli Khan, a courtier of Mughal ruler Muhammad Shah writing in his book, Delhi in 12th century A. D., mentions more than 50 musicians including Qawwals Taj Khan, Moinuddin and Burhani who had earned great reputation as vocal musicians.

The rulers of Sharqi dynasty of Jaunpur were great patrons of music and were the first to advance active patronage to this fine art. Khiyal had become very popular during this era. Round about this period the Bahmani dynasty of Deccan and later on the rulers of Bijapur also showed much interest in the development of music. ''Ibrahim Adil Shah"
says Zahuri, "was a master artist whose profound interest had popularised music in every house of his domain"

Akbar, the great Mughal Emperor was a well known patron of cultural activities specially of fine arts. He had drawn to his court a team of at least 50 musicians from all parts of India who were experts in vocal and instrumental music. During the last 1,000 years India has not produced a greater vocal musician than Tan Sen Khan of Gawalior, who was a distinguished courtier of Akbar. He has become a legendary figure in the annals of Hindustani music. Other notable experts of instrumental music in the court of Akbar were Shahab Khan, an all-round instrumental artist, Dost Mashhadi, the flute player and Yusuf Mirasi, the Tanbur master.

Tozak-i-Jahangiri written by the cultured emperor himself mentions some celebrated vocal musicians who enlivened the durbar of Jahangir. These included Jahangir Dad Khan, Parvez Khan and Khorrum Dad Khan.

During the reign of Shah Jahan, Lal Khan the grand son-in-law of the famous Tan Sen had earned a great reputation as a vocal musician. Abdur Rahim Khankhanan a distinguished courtier of Akbar the Great was a benevolent patron of musicians and poets, whose munifcence knew no bounds and has become proverbial.

India has produced many prominent Muslim theorists. Sher Khan wrote Miratul Khiyal, Abdul Baqj Nahawandi wrote Maasarul Umara, Rag Darpan and Risala Tan Sen, and Syed Nizam-ud-din is the author of Risala Ameer Khusro and Maadan-i-Mausiqi. Hakim Muhammad Akram wrote a voluminous book entitled Maadan-i-Mausiqi, (The mine of music) detailing in it the achievements of innumerable vocal and instrumental musicians. The Nagmat-i-Asafi (The songs of Asafi dynasty), an outstanding work of Raza Khan published in 1813 revolutionised Indian music. He systematised and graded the songs in an orderly manner and introduced a systematic notation of Indian music which influenced the later musicians.

Maulana Abdul Halim Sharar, the well-known Urdu novelist in his presidential address delivered at the Music conference held at Baroda in March, 1916, said, "During the preceding centuries, Muslims dominated the Indian music and left far behind their Hindu counterparts in the pursuit of this fine art. At present all the eminent musicians in India specially in the courts of State rulers are Muslims who are experts in their professions"

The Muslims have undoubtedly dominated Indo-Pakistani music for the last thousand years. Even during the current century a galaxy of talented Muslim artists adorned the firmament of Indo-Pakistani music. Tan Sen of Delhi and Ustad Fayyaz Khan of Baroda have occupied the most distinguished place as musicians in the present century. Ustad Fayyaz Khan was recognised till his death as the best musician of the Sub-continent and in several all-India music conferences he was honoured with the title of "The Master Musician of India", and the "Sun of Indian Music." The late Piare Saheb of U. P. was one of the best singers modern India has produced, who excelled in the art of singing Pucca songs (classical songs). Ghulam Ali Khan is universally acknowledged as one of the best vocal musician of the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent; Muslims did not lag behind in instrumental music and produced some of the leading artists of our age. Inayat Khan in Sitar, Bundoo Khan in Sarangi, Abid Husain and Nathu Khan of Delhi in Tabla and Khan Saheb- Hafiz Ali Khan in Sarod have been matchless.

Ustad Munir Khan (d/193X A. D.) whose 89th birth anniversary has recently been celebrated at Bombay had been the most outstanding Tabla artist of India. Belonging to a reputed family of hereditary musicians of U. P. his father Ustad Kale Khan was a great exponent of the art of rhythm. Ustad Munir Khan was one of the few legendary figures who greatly contributed to the development of Tabla music throughout this Sub-continent.' His disciples Amir Husain Khan, Shamsuddin Khan and Ahmed Jan have maintained the high reputation of their Ustad and according to a Hindu critic, "Their dexterity and originality are today unrivalled among Tabla players."

A few-years back Ustad Mushtaq Husain and Alauddin Khan have been honoured as the best musicians of Bharat by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the President of the Bharati Republic.

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PAINTING


Arabs
The hostility of the orthodox theologians to all forms of representative art including painting provided only a temporary set back to its development. The Omayyad Caliphs who started a life of luxury and splendour and built magnificent palaces permitted figure paintings in private apartments specially in bath-rooms and harems, though such type of art was scrupulously excluded from public, political and religious edifices. The Omayyad Caliph, Al-Walidhad his desert palace Qasar-i-Amra (712--715 A.D.) painted with frescoes depicting figures of six royal personages including the Caliph himself, sitting on a throne. A hunting scenel depicted a lion attacking a wild ass and there were several nude figures representing dancers, musicians and buffoons. The background ornamentations consisted of draperies, foliage, vines, palm trees, cluster of fruits and desert birds.

The Abbasids who were great patrons of art, took a liberal view of the matter. -The Abbasid Caliph Mansur had set upon the dome of his palace the figure of a horseman which probably served as a weathercock. Amin had his pleasure boats fashioned like lions, eagles and dolphins. The Abbasid Caliph, Al-MutaSim, the builder of Samarra (836 A. D.) had his palace decorated with exquisite frescoes of nude female figures and hunting scenes. He had employed Christian artists for this assignment. Another Abbasid Caliph, Mutawakkil, who is said to have spent over 29,40,00,000 dirhams on beautifying Samarra, had employed Byzantine painters for the mural decoration of his palace.

The world famous Alhambra Palace of Granada (Spain) contains the figures of Moors represented as noble, knights and troubadours in roof paintings. The well-known court of lions contains exquisite statues of 12 lions carved out of marble. But the contribution of the Arabs to this art is still unknown as none of the books dealing with the history of Arabic paintings has survived.


Mughals
The Mughal emperors are distinguished as the great patrons of art and architecture. Being deeply influenced by Persian culture, the Mughal emperors afforded artists in their dominions the fullest opportunity for the pursuits of fine arts. Mughal painting, in fact is a pleasant blend of three main influences-namely Persian, Western and Indian. The Mughal art is realistic and in a way photographic and took 150 years for its full growth. Like Persian painting it is essentially an art of book painting. The first Mughal emperor, Babar who lived in the days of the celebrated Persian painter Behzad, had a critical taste for this art. His memoirs include a criticism of Behzad for being incapable of drawing beardless figures.

His gifted son, Humayun had employed Mir Sayyad Ali and Khwaja Abdul Samad, the latter being entrusted with the supervision of illustrating the tale of Ameer Hamza. About 50 painters worked on this plan and produced more than 2,000 illustrations painted on cloth.

The Mughal school of painting owes much to emperor Akbar, whose irreligiosity provided a great stimulus to all types of secular art. Artists, during his regime were free to produce on canvas and paper life in its -varied forms. He came in contact with Western art through the Portuguese Jesuits. Akbar held occasional art exhibitions in his palace and awarded prizes. The interest exhibited by the emperor for this art created a healthy competition and produced more than 100 first class artists. He commissioned some of them to decorate with exquisite paintings the walls of his newly built palace at Fatehpur Sikri.

The talented Mughal emperor, Jahangir continued the patronage of fine arts like his father and Mughal painting during his regime was developed to a high degree of perfection.


Persia
Persia, which has the-distinction of being the cradle of civilization in Asia has made lasting contributions to the development of Islamic fine arts.

The development of painting and other fine arts in Persia dates back to even before the Abbasid Caliphate. During the golden period of the Abbasid Caliphate when arts and literature flourished, the Persian influence in fine arts, especially in painting, was very strong. Except for the ornamental wall paintings, which came to light in the Palaces of Samarra during the course of excavations, no traces of Persian painting of the Sassanian period has been found.

The first extant work of Persian painting of the Saljuq period dates to the 12th century and the tendencies evident in this work continued upto the end of the 13th century A.D. The works of this period are astonishing in their refinement of colour shading and the "forcible depiction of their subjects". The witty conceits of Abu Said of Serruj are highly commendable. The 'Minai' pottery of Raghes (c 1200) which borrowed the Baghdad style of painting was also prevalent throughout Persia.


Persian-Mongol School
The Mongol conquests of-Central Asia, Persia and China enlarged the outlook on painting and introduced Chinese landscape painting into Persia. Till the beginning of the 14th century, the subject for painting in Persia generally was representation of historical events and legendary episodes. In the 14th century a new Persio-Mongol style of painting was developed which had its centre in Baghdad and Tabriz. The captions now were Persian and the art of miniature painting was Persianised. The great epics of Firdausi, Nizami and Kirmani were illustrated and translated into pictures. The heroic themes of Shah Nama and the classical stories of Shirin Farhad and Laila Majrzoon were transformed into living sketches. The selection of themes out of their national history and country side landscapes, gave the works of Persian artists a romantic touch visible in Gothic art. "It was in this period (14th century)" says a western critic of art, "That the harmony between picture and text reached the highest degree, and turning the leaves of extant manuscripts we are continually astonished at the skill with which the Persian painters filled their subjects into spaces allotted to them". Till the beginning of the 14th century, backgrounds used to be coloured red, then it changed to blue and at the end of the century a gold background was favoured. Other colours used were bright and lively. The landscape painted during the period was mostly of steppes, barren rocks,isolated trees, and a little rivulet running among stones bordered by shrubs and flowering plants.


Behzad of Herat
"An undeniable weakness of Persio-Mongol paintings" says a critic of art, "is in the diagramatical conventionalizihg of figures, the spiritless treatment of heads and absence of expression in movements". In this respect hardly any progress was visible til lthe birth of the great personality of Behzad-a genius who is rightly honoured as the greatest painter of Persia who revolutionised the Persian art of painting, Behzad who was born before 1450 A.D. and died after 1520 A.D. represents the zenith of the Persio-Mongol and the beginning of the Safavid period of Persian painting. He was head of the Herat Academy till 1506 A.D., when Shah Ismail took him to Tabriz and made him Chief of the Imperial Library. Of his early works are History of Taimur illustrated in 1467 A.D., an illustrated edition of Saadi's Bostan completed in 1487 A.D. and the illustrated story of Laila Majnoon are preserved in Leningrad. "Behzad understood how, even in his most populous compositions, to differentiate every single figure in countenance and bearing; his palette was extraordinarily' rich, specially in warm, full tones and this enabled him to individualise his portraits by the employment of numerous colour nuances for costumes and even for flesh." He reformed the painting of landscapes by making it more realistic and natural. He was the first to revolt against the dictates of the Calligraphers and chose his own line in this respect also. He left behind him a host of pupils both in Herat and Tabriz, who popularised his art and style throughout Persia, Turkistan and even in India and he was considered an authority on oriental painting till the beginning of the 18th century A. D.


The Tabriz School
The second great exponent of the Tabriz school of painting was the gifted Sultan Muhammad, who exercised much influence in the durbar of Shah Tahmspi. With the help of other artists he produced fine illustrated editions of Persian epics and he opened a new field for painters by introducing lacquer painting. Some of the best: animal and hunting trapestries of the 16th century were made in his studio. He laid great emphasis on ornamental and floral forms of painting.


The Isfahan School
Isfahan,.the great capital of the celebrated Persian monarch Shah-Abbas was the centre of the arts and literature in the latter half of the 15th century. Imad-elHusni (died in 1618 A.D.) and Ali Raza Abbasi competed in Calligraphy. Animal figures were very skilfully painted by the artists, who formed one of the most glorious periods of Persian painting. Ustad Muhammadi provided the link between the Tabriz and Isfahan schools and was the first to put his observation of nature on paper in purest ink wash technique without any reference to text. The successor of Ustad Muhammadi was the celebrated Raza Abbasi, who was one of the most remarkable artists Persia has produced. He excelled in the art of gay, sure handed colour sketches and drawings in red chalk on common subjects. He also used rich colour in paintings and his reputation as an artist rivals that of Behzad. He gave an impetusto the illustration of manuscripts and other decorative arts. His best pupil and friend was Moin, whose best extant work is the portrait of his Teacher. The style of Raza- Abbasi was kept alive by Muhamrnad Qasim, Mir Muhammad Ali and Muhammad Yusuf till the beginning of the 18th century.

During the 18th century Persian-painting was influenced by Western art and Nadir Shah brought from India the heritage of Mughal art. Lacquer painting of ordinary type gained much popularity in the first half of the 19th century and the great Persiari art became a thing of the Past.

The Iranian painting influenced and stimulated the growth of painting in the East specially those of the Mughals in India.

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East
The East has always been rich in architectural monuments and some of the greatest monuments built during ancient times were found in the East. The Pyramids of Egypf the Great Wall of China and the Hanging Garden of Babylon included in the Seven Wonders of theWorld were located in the East. The Pyramids of Egypt still remind people of the greatness of their builders, whose engineering skill enabled them to raise such massive pieces of stones to such great heights about 5,000 years ago when mechanical and engineering faculties were not as developed as today.

The Arabs who inherited the civilization and culture of the Greeks and Romans also brought about a great development in the architectural sphere. The Masjid is the typical and principal Arab building, varying to some extent in form with different localities, but always retaining its main features. Masjids, the most original creation of Muslim genius which are found everywhere offer the best means of studying the architectural development of a country. In middle eastern countries religious and aristocratic buildings, such as Masjids, shrines, tombs, palaces and castles predominate. The countries which abound in the finest architectural monuments of the Arabs, Persians and Mughals are Spain, Egypt, Iraq, Persia and the Indo-Pak Sub-continent.


Abbasid
Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid was a city of palaces made not of stucco and mortar, but of marble. The buildings are not different in structure or style from those in Damascus and show Persian influence. The palaces were lavishly gilded and decorated. The imperial palaces of Khuld had a golden gate and a hall surmounted by a green dome 80 cubits high, which was the crown of Baghdad. The palace named Dar-us-Shajar had a tree made of gold with birds perched on its branches made also of gold and studded with gems. Another palace, the Hall of Paradise (Aiwan-al-Firdaus) with its magnificent chandeliers, its inlaid jewels on the walls, its paintings and ornamentations was a fairy sight.


Egypt
Egypt did not lag behind in erecting architectural monuments during mediaeval times and the Masjid of Ibn Tululi provides the most splendid sight in Cairo. Other magnificent palaces of the Fatimids and the Ayyubids are in ruins.


Indo-Pakistan
The Indo-Pakistan Sub-continent possesses some of the finest architectural monuments in the East.

The Mughal period is particularly noted for its fine architecture and Shah Jahan, the builder of the Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid of Delhi, the Red Fort and the marble palaces of agra and Delhi is known as one of the greatest builders in history. Jehangir was fond of paintings while Shah Jahan was fond of buildings-hence what Jahangir achieved on paper, Shah Jahan achieved in brick and mortar. The Taj Mahal, built of white marble, employing 20 thousand men for 22 years and costing 30 crores of rupees is undoubtedly the finest building in the world. It is 'Love or Lyric in Marble', and is unique in its evasive loveliness, which is so difficult to define in architectural terms but most expressive of the builder's intentions. Bernier says, "This monument deserves much more to be remembered among the wonders of the world than the Pyramids of Egypt". "It is an astonishing work", says Tavernier, Fergusson observes, "It is a combination of so many beauties, and the perfect manner in which one is subordinate to the other makes up a whole which the world cannot match". Harvel calls it, "A living thing with all the aesthetic attributes of perfect womanhood, more subtle, romantic and tender in its beauty than any other building of its kind' '

The Pearl Masjid of the Delhi Fort is a sanctuary in which 'mysterious soul throbs between bliss and ecstacy'. Its charm lies in its simplicity and its chief attraction is the purity of its marble. It is a pearl without a flaw. "If fine ornamentation, floral designs artistic writings and intricate trellis work contribute to the charm of the Taj, the very absence of these add to the beauty of the Pearl Masjid”.

The Red Fort, started in 1639 and completed after 9 years, contains a number of beautiful marble courts and palaces including Rang Mahal, Musamman Burj, Diwan-i-Aarn(Hall of public audience), Diwani-Khas (Hall of private audience) Sawan and Bhadon. The Diwan-i-Khas which housed the famous Peacock Throne is decorated most profusely with all sorts of ornamentations and a marble water channel called Nahar-i-Bihishli runs through the centre of the Hall and gives it an appearance of paradise--with the words inscribed on it, walls "If there be a paradise on earth, it is this, it is this!"

Jahangir is known for building some of the finest gardens in the East including the Shalimar Bagh of Kashmir which contained cyp'esses, marble channels of water, fountains and cascades.

Fatehpur Sikri, the deserted capital of the Mughal emperor Akbar contained some fine architectural monuments. Its Hall of Private audience has an exquisite carved pillar in the centre of the Hall. The Badshahi Masjid built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore is one of the biggest and finest Masjids in the world.


Spain
Of all the splendid architectural monuments built by Muslims in different parts of the world, Spain possesses some of the grandest. If India can boast of her Taj, Persia of the great Masjid of Isfahan, Baghdad of its majestic palaces, Cairo of its Masjid Ibn Tulun, Moorish Spain may claim an outstanding place for her Alhambra and the grand Masjid of Cordova which are considered the marvels of architecture.
In Spain too, the Masjids, which are found everywhere, offer the best means of studying the architectural development of the country. After the fall ofthe Omayyad (750 A.D.), when Abdur Rahman founded a kingdom of his own in Spain he developed the old Syrian architecture on individual lines. The earliest example of this style are represented by the Sidi Oqba Masjid at Qairuan and the Az-Zituna Masjid at Tunis. The hall for a Masjid was introduced in this period and in the East there used to be a courtyard surrounded by a colonnade `which contained a water basin for ablutions. A lofty quadrangular tower served as minaret, while opposite the Mahrab was situated the Maqsura (the chieftain's lodge) crowned with a dome. The great Masjid of Cordova had been built on the above plan. Horse-shoe arches of alternate red brick and white key stones rested on slender pillars and above them rose a second storey of round arches of the same type as supported the original cedarwood-ceiling. It is a large congregational Masjid with a deep sane tuary containing eleven galleries separated by arcades, each with twenty columns. The Maqsura contained richly decorated lobar arches and horse-shoe arches where the dome sprang from two intersecting quadrangles of arches. The Mahrab was decorated with Byzantine glass mosaic. In other parts of the building plastered floral forms predominate in the decorations. The Minbar is richly carved and the Mahrab is covered with glazed tiles. "This plan, with its slender stone pillars" says a celebrated European writer, "horse-shoe and lobar arches, tiling and stucco (glazed) arabesques, in later centuries was carried on into graceful style, a kind of Magrebine rococo and remains the distinctive characteristic of all Moorish and Mudejar art in Spain till the 16th century".

The glory of Cordova is Mezquita or Masjid which was converted into a cathedral by the Christian conquerors. It was begun by Abdur Rahman II (756-788 A.D.) continued by Al-Hakim II and completed by the Vazier of Hisham II (976-1009 A.D.). The Masjid is rectangular measuring 590 feet by 425 feet, 113 sq. feet of which is occupied by the famous 'court - of oranges' and cloisters surrounded it on three sides. On the south of the courtyard, lies a labyrinth of pillars made of many coloured marble. The 850 pillars divide the building into 19 North to South and 29 East to West aisles (galleries). Each row supports a row of open Moorish arches of the same height (12 feet) with a third and similar row superimposed upon the second. The wooden ceiling richly carved and polished is still intact. The mahrab of the Masjid where the Imam stood presents the best type of workmanship, in which a small octangonal recess (corner) is roofed with a single block of white marble carved in the form of a shell. ' Its walls are decorated with Byzantine mosaics. "But the most original contribution of Cordova to architecture" says J. B. Trend, "was the system of vaulting based on intersecting arches and visible intersecting ribs, a system which attacks the main problem of architecture--that of covering space with a roof in much the same way as the system of Gothic vaulting which developed two centuries later".

The palace of Az-Zahra built by an-Nasir, situated at a distance of four miles from Cordova was one of the best palaces of the world. It is built of many coloured marble--white, rosy, onyx and green. The eastern hall contained fountains jetting out of the mouths of different animals made of gold and set with precious stones. The Diwan-i-kam was a remarkable piece of workmanship made of marble and gold set with jewels. According to the old writers, "it was impossible to give in words a proper description of the boldness of the design, the beauty of the proportions, the elegance of the or naments and decorations, whether of carved marble or of molten gold, of the columns that seemed from their symmetry as if cast in moulds, of the paintings that equalled the choicest bowers themselves, the vast but firmly constructed lake, and the fountains with the exquisite images".


Alhambra
Alhambra, the finest of all Moorish monuments and universally acknowledged as one of the wonders of the world is situated in Granada. It has not been fully established by historical records as to who was its original builder, but it has been proved by latest research that the fortress of Alhambra existed long before the advent of Al-Ahmar, the rulers of Granada. The first mention of this fortress found in historical records is during'the reign-of Amir Abdulla, the sixth Omayyad monarch of Spain, when in 890 A. D., Sa'wwar, the Muslim general, was obliged to take refuge in this fortress due to the rebellion of the neighbouring tribesmen. Again in 1161A.D, when Ibn Abdul Momin had shut himself within the four walls of the impregnable fortress of Alhambra, Moratabin laid siege to it which lasted for a pretty long time. The monarchs of the Al-Ahmar dynasty, who established themselves as the rulers of Granada in 1232 A. D., are distinguished for having a fine taste in architecture and are responsible for building one of the finest palaces in the world, known as Alhambra. The fortress and its four walls, as already explained existed long before the construction of the inner palaces. Abu Abdulla Muhammad Salis (1302--9 A.D), Abul Hajjaj Yusuf 1(1330-54 A.D.) and Muhammad Khamis Al-Ghani Billah (1354--·59 A.D,), the rulers of Granada were mainly responsible for the construction, enlargement and the architectural decorations of the palaces of Alhambra. These palaces which have witnessed the pomp and pageantry, trials and tribulations of the successive Al-Ahmar monarchs ultimately fell into the hands of Christians in 1492 A. D. The splendid decorations of the interior is ascribed to Yusuf I who died in 1354 A.D,

This unique piece of architectural art was disfigured and in places demolished by the Christian conquerors and rulers.. Charles V changed the lesser Masjid adjoining the Court of Myrtles into a chapel and disfigured the old royal abode by demolishing the southern wing, which probably contained the main porch. He was not contented with this and did even worse when he replaced it with a building of renaissance style, with a showy facade which was an ugly contrast to the simple outer walls of the old palace. The great Masjid of Muhammad III was razed to the ground and was replaced by the church of Santa Maria in 1581 A.D. According to a western historian, "In subsequent centuries the carelessness of the Spanish authorities (Christian Monarchs) permitted this master piece of Moorish art to be still defaced". It was damaged by French invaders in 1812 A.D. and further by earthquake in 1821 A.D.


Site
Alhambra is situated on a hilly terrace in the midst of rare natural surroundings. The plateau, river and the beautiful gardens and forests have all added to its natural charm. · This fortress is surrounded on three sides bythe river Douro, and has an entrance on the south-eastern side. Its outer walls are constructed of superfine red bricks, henceit is called Alhambra, meaning 'red' in Arabic. Like many Christian castles, it has a three-fold arrange ment--a castle, a palace and a residential annexe for subordinates. The Alcazaba or castle is the oldest part, built on the dangerous foreland; and only its massive outer walls., towers and ramparts are still intact. A short distance from Alcazaba is the Al hambra proper, the palace of the Moorish Rings and adjacent to it is Alhambra Alta originally built as the residence of the officials.


Palace
Alhambra is a villa surrounded by extensive gardens and parks. One enters the Alhambra park through the gate of pomegranates which is a grand arch built in the 15th century A.D. A steep ascent leads to the main entrance of the palace, which is known as the "gate of judgment" and is a massive horseshoe archway, surrounded by a square tower, which served as an informal "Court of Justice". A small door leads to the "Arab Palace", from which a corridor leads to the "Court of Blessing" or "Court of Pond". This is 140 feet by 74 feet and in its centre is located a large pond set in marble pavement, full of gold fish and. with myrtles growing along its sides. It has galleries on the north and the south. The 27 feet high principal entrance supported by marble pillars is on the south. The "Hall of Ambassadors" is the largest hall in the palace of Alhambra. It is a square room whose sides are 37 feet in length and its central dome is 75 feet high. This was the grand reception room and the throne of the Sultan was placed opposite the entrance.

The celebrated "Court of Lions" is an oblong court measuring116 feet by 66 feet supported by a low gallery resting on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the Court at each corner with ornamented walls and a light domed-roof elaborately decorated. The lattice work of the walls is extremely fine. The floor is covered with many coloured tiles and slender pillars made of white marbles. The walls up to a height of 5 feet are inlaid with blue and yellow tiles whose borders are polished with blue and gold. The famous fountains of lions are in the centre of the courtyard where a magnificent alabaster basin is supported by 12 lions made of white marble.

The "Hall of Abencerrages" is a room which is a perfect square crowned with a high dome containing latticed windows in its lowest part. The roof is painted with bright blue, brown and gold and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in an exquisite manner. Opposite to it is the hall of "Two Sisters", which contains a fountain in the centre. A dome honey-combed with about 5,000 tiny cells, a magnificent example of the "Stalactite Vaulting of the Moors", forms the roof of the Hall.

The famous vase of Alhambra which is a remarkable specimen of Moorish art represents the invaluable original furniture of the Palace, which was made in 1320 A.D.

Alhambra is undoubtedly a marvel of the architectural ingenuity of man. Writing in his celebrated work A Short History of the Saracens, Ameer Ali, the famous Muslim writer, says, "The towers, citadels and palaces, with their light and elegant architecture, the graceful porticos and colonndes, the domes and ceilings still glowing with tints which have lost none of their original brilliancy; the airy halls, constructed to admit the perfume of the surrounding gardens; the numberless fountains over which the owners had such perfect control, that the water could be made high or low, visible or invisible at pleasure, sometimes allowed to spout in the air, and at other times to spread out in large oblong sheets, in which were reflected buildings, fountains and serene azure sky; the lovely arabesques, paintings and mosaics finished with such care and accuracy as to make even the smallest apartment fascinating, and illuminated in various shades of gold, pink, light blue and dusky purple'; the lovely dados of porcelain, mosaic of various figures and colours; the beautiful Hall of Lions with its cloister of 128 slender and graceful columns, its blue and white pavement, its harmony of scarlet, azure and gold; the arabesques glowing with colour like the pattern on a cashmere shawl, its lovely marble filigree filling in the arches, its beautiful cupolas, its famous alabaster cup in the centre; the enchanting Hall of Music ... the beautiful seraglio with its delicate and graceful brass lattice work and exquisite Ceilings; the lovely colouring of the stalactites in the large halls and of the conical linings in the smaller chambers--all these require a master's pen to describe".

The inscriptions found in the palace relate to its decorations and not to its erection. The major part of construction and decoration were done by Yusuf I. The decorations around the Court of Lions and further eastward were made in the reign of Muhammad V.


Comparison
The palaces of Alhambra built in the 13th century A.D., mark the transition from the Saljuq art in Asia Minor to the style of the Persian monuments, The grandeur ofAlhambra may only be realised, when it is compared with contemporary buildings--e.g,, with the great Masjid of Sultan Hassan built in 1356--59 A.D, which serves as a striking contrast to Alhambra. "Alhambra is unique", says a European writer, "No other example of the Islamic palace of so early a date and in such relatively good condition has yet been found" The two adjoining courts in the "Hali of Ambassadors" resemble the ancient houses of Pompeii. "The well-known Courts in the style of the Cosmatic in Rome", says Says a well-known westerner, "with their exotic and fairy like ornament can only be accounted for as imitations of these Moorish palace Courts" The plan of dividing the Palace into a system of courts and pavilions in the midst of gardens as is visible in the Safavid Palaces of Isfahan and the old Sarai of Istanbul was probably imported by Moors.

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Iran
Architecture in Iran is distinguished for for its refinement and delicacy. Contrary to the huge and massive monuments built by the Mughals and Turks, Persian architecture has a gracefulness all its own.

Persian Muslims who formed the vanguard of all cultural and artistic movements in the Islamic world introduced many innovations and beautiful designs in architecture. Unfortunately Persia had never been the seat of any of the Islamic Caliphates or great empires, hence one does not come across big palaces, Masjids and.other grand buildings as are found in Baghdad, Damascus, Istanbul, Cairo, Cordova and Delhi. But, in spite of this handicap Persia did not lag behind in producing some of the greatest intellectual and artistic luminaries of the Islamic world and whatever architectural monuments are found in Persia have their own peculiar charm and style.

In Islamic countries such buildings as monastries, Masjids, tombs and palaces are found in large number. The Persians brought about a great change in the style and architectural design of Masjids. Due to ever increasing number of Masjids, congregations had very much decreased and Persians were obliged to design a new type of Masjid in order to meet the requirements of the time. This is called the Persian type of Masjid which had a Madrassa attached to it. In this typical Persian design, the Masjid courtyard used for ablution as well as for prayers is surrounded by two storeyed verandahs behind which are situated small rooms for teachers and students. From the middle of each side run open halls, open to the front and roofed with a vault of ogee arches. Each hall called Iwan, containing Mahrab and Minbarserves as lecture room.- Such iwans, twice ashigh as the adjacent part of the Building are splendidly ornamented and flanked by small minarets. A smaller iwan of the same type serves as the gateway. The main iwan is crowned with a dome narrowed at the bottom and it contains the founder's Tomb or Mahrab..

Writing about these Masjids a well-known European writer says, "With their slender minarets their magnificent iwaras and gateways and their lofty domes (often gilded)--these buildings are among the most astonishing buildings Of the East". The walls of these Masjids are always overlaid with mosaic of dull or glazed bricks and smooth tiles of various colours which are artistically decorated with lines of carved Arabic script and flower arabesques. The slender pillars Immensely add to the charm of the buildings. Un, fortunately these buildings are in a state of decay. The most celebrated of this type are "The Blue Masjid of Tabriz" and the "Masjjd Shah" at Tabriz which were constructed in the 15th century A,D. Other Masjids of similar or slightly older type are the great Masjid of Veramin (1322 A.D.) that of Isfahan (11--14 century) the Masjid containing the Tomb of Imam Raza at Mashhad (1418 A.D.) and the Masjid Shah at Isfahan (1600 A.

In the Juma Masjid of Isfahan, a quadrangle surrounded with four iwans of Persian madrassa was added to the old Piered Masjid. This Masjid was originally built in pillared Masjid and frequently, enlarged and as usual was surrounded with bazaars.

The ancient Friday Masjids have not survived in Persia except a few old parts standing in a great complex of buildings that formed the great Masjids of Isfahan and Shiraz. Abu Muslim in the reign of Caliph Mamun built two big Masjids in Merv and Neshapur of which the latter was built on pillars of wood and designed in typical PerSian style. An old Masjid of the 1Oth century A.D. has survived in Naizin, an old desert city of Isfahan. The iwan and mahrab court were added to the Masjids of Persia in the 11th century. The Friday Masjid of Isfahan built in the 12th century A.D., is one of the finest and largest congregational Masjids of the East. This is built of bricks and decorated with plastered Reliefs and Polished Tiles. Its minarets being cylindrical in shape and placed in pairs are covered with glazed tiles and are not very high. It was in Persia that the art of ornamentation and arabesque in architecture was most developed and Persians made the greatest use of glazed coloured tiles in their buildings. From the 13th century onward Persia and India made the greatest advancement in architecture and Persia developed its own style. The art of arabesque which became very popular in Islamic architecture was widely adopted by the Western world.

The favourite form of princely Tomb in Persia from the 1Oth to the 14th centuries A.D. was that a Tower was constructed over the grave surrounded with circular ground plan. A conical roof rested on the projected ornamented walls beneath which was the grave on which was inscribed in beautiful carved letters the name, titles and date of death of the deceased. The finest tomb of the kind is that of Momina Khatoon at Nakhichavan.

Among the old type of Persian Palaces are Qasr-e-Amra with vaulted baths adorned with frescoes and the HIRA found at Mshatta. These are rectangular Castles and in order to reach the hall of audience one has to pass through a number of ante-rooms. Attached to the hall are the princes apartments and Harem.
At the back is a private garden and soldiers quarters are on both sides.

Caravansarais in Persia which were fortified hostelries for travellers were built on the plan of a Iwan Masjid--the rooms were used as stalls and guest rooms. There were carved streets in the attached bazaars, . and they had pillars with round arched vaulting in the west and long rows of curved arched vaults in the east. The Old type of sarais found in Istanbul were decorated with tiles copied from Persia.

Almost all the old Persian bridges have disappeared. The two very beautiful bridges joining Isfahan and Zulfa constructed in the 17th century still exist and have two storeyed superstructures and pavilions.

Private houses are of varied type--reception and living rooms are Separated from female apartments and a second courtyard is provided for them. There are different devices for cooling apartments in the East and West. In Mediterranean countries where water is in plenty there are constructed half darkened inner halls containing springs while in dry Persia and Iraq there are underground summer apartments with projecting ventilators.

A dome is the favourite feature of Islamic architecture. In Cairo It was pompous while in Persia it was bulbous and carved with glazed tiles. The cylindrical shaped minarets Of Persia were not much used in other Islamic countries.

In Muslim countries mostly horse-shoe or pointed horse-shoe arches were designed. The semi-circular or two centred arches were not much employed. The typical Persian arch of which the springing curve turns into straight lines was commonly used in Persia for a long time and at times resembles the "Tudor" arch.

Battlements in buildings were fully decorated with floral forms or cut into saw-teeth. The windows of old Persian buildings were carved with lattice work in which coloured glasses were fixed.

In Persia buildings are generally made of bricks and glazed tiles too are frequently used here. These tiles were primarily of geometrical forms but later diverse floral forms were introduced.

One of the most popular branches of Muslim architecture is that of ornamental writing, which is employed with great success in the decoration of Masjids, tombs and palaces where lines from the Holy Quran are carved or inlaid round domes and minarets, doors and arches. Persians developed this art to a great extent and widely used ornamental writings in the decoration of tombs and Masjids.

In beauty and grace, in design and simplicity, Muslim architecture is superior to any in the world.


The Mughal Architecture in East Pakistan
The great Mughals who splendidly ruled over the Indo-Pak Sub-continent for more than four centuries are known as the greatest builders in history. Their ancestor Babar founded a vast Empire in India which rivalled in prosperity and splendour the great Caliphates of Abbasids and Omayyads in Spain. Delhi their metropolis, along with Baghdad and Constantinople, Cairo and Cordova was considered one of the finest cities of the known world. The Mughals who are well-known for their pomp and pageantry have raised some of the most magnificent architectural monuments in the East. Delhi houses the splendid Jamma Masjid (Grand Masjid), the Majestic Red Fort and the matchless Pearl Masjid, all built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. He is also the distinguished builder of the immortal Taj Mahal of Agra. In Lahore stands the magnificent Badshahi Masjid (King's Masjid) built by the celebrated emperor Aurangzeb. Dacca which had the privilege of being the headquarter of the Mughal viceroy governing the Eastern Provinces possesses some striking Mughal buildings .

The earliest contacts of the Mughals with the Eastern province may be traced back to the close of the 16th century A.D., when Afghans who dominated over these parts yielded to the Mughals and they established their headquarters at Tanda near Gaur, about 15 miles South-west of Malda in West Bengal. It was in 1612 A.D., that the Mughals got complete supremacy over Bengal and Islam Khan, the Mughal governor transferred his Capital to Dacca.. This caused a great change in the life of Bengal and added immensely to the prosperity of the people.

The oldest Mughal monument in Bengal is a ruined Masjid erected in 1582. A.D. in Chatmohar, District Pabna. It contains three arched entrances, which still exist, The central arch has traces of having been richly decorated with ornamental designs.

Another monument of the same period is a mud fort constructed in 1595, A.D. by Raja Man Singh, the Bengal Governor of the Mughal Emperor Akbar at Salim Nagar, in Bogra District.

The best massive monument of this period is a Masjid known as Kherua Masjid which is situated at a short distance from the Tomb of Saint Bande Saheb. This Masjid, which was built in 1582 A.D. by Murad Khan Qasshaly, measures 57x24 1/2, and has 6 feet thick walls. The Masjid is rectangular in shape and the central gateway contains an inscription. The arches are decorated with floral designs which greatly contribute to their charm.


Later Mughal Monuments
Dacca which was the headquarter of the Mughal viceroys possesses some of the finest Mughal architectures in East Pakistan. Shaista Khan, the maternal uncle of the great Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and Prince Muhammad Azam, the third son of the celebrated emperor who were successive viceroys in the Eastern Provinces of the Mughal Empire were the two persons credited with enriching East Pakistan with grand Mughal monuments rarely visible in these parts of the Sub-continent. It is futile to compare the Mughal architectural monuments of Dacca with those of Delhi Agra and Lahore which for long periods, had the privilege of being the metropolis of the great Mughal Empire. Being a Provincial Capital, Dacca may favourably be compared with any other Provincial Capital and to that extent it possesses more than its share of Mughal monuments. Bogra and Mymensing, too, possess a few buildings built by the Mughals.


Old Idgah
The remains of the old Idgah, built by Mir Abul Qasim, the Dewan of Prince Shuja in 1640 A.D., still stands about 1 1/2 miles outside Dacca municipal limits. The building is of plastered brickwork, standing on a raised platform 245 x 135' in size.

The remains of Bara Katra built of plastered brick; work in 1644 by Mir Abul Qasim on the north bank of the river, are still visible and remind people of the commercial prosperity of Mughal times. It had 22 big shops and was also used as a caravansarai. Its three storeyed lofty gateway and the river side walls which are 200 feet long, have faced the ravages of time. The chamber of the main gate as well as the interior of the arches are ornamented with plaster net work and floral designs which are preserved in a dilapidated state.


Lall Bagh Fort
On the Eastern corner of old Daccastand the remains of the incomplete Lall Bagh Fort or Fort Aurangabad, whose construction was commenced by Prince Muhammad Azam, the third son of Emperor Aurangzeb, but could not be completed as the Prince was summoned by his illustrious father in 1679 A.D. to join his forces against the Marahttas. The finished part of the fort contains two main gates on the north and south in a 2,000 feet long massive walls. The fort was built of red bricks. The river Purl Ganga, which, in those days, washed the south western corner of this majestic fort, has slightly changed its course, leaving a track of land which has been converted into meadows. The bastion adjacent to the main gateway is of gigantic size and has a raised platform 13 feet wide for the stationing of guns. The stately three storeyed gate on the south, with a four centred arch-way built of stone and crowned with a plastered dome, is the most attractive part of the building. Adequate protective measures were taken in the construction of the building against river Piracy.


Pari Bibi's Tomb
The Tomb of Pari Bibi, standing amid the unfinished Lall Bagh fort is like a lotus flower in a big pond. It is the mausoleum of Bibi Pari (Lady Fairy), the favourite daughter of Shaista Khan. The Mughal Viceroy Shaista Khan whose sister Mumtaz Mahal has been buried in the immortal Taj Mahal, the finest mausoleum ever built on the surface of the earth, raised another matchless Tomb for his beloved daughter Pari Bibi. Built of black, grey and white marble stones brought from,Bihar, U.P. and Rajputana, this mausoleum is the finest specimen of Mughal architecture in the Eastern Provinces. The walls and the floor of the burial chamber are made of white marble lined with black. The walls of the four cornered rooms previously had multi-coloured glazed tiles and were decorated with floral designs, which now are missing. The 'series of corbelled roof', with its excellent timber work is the most striking portion of the building. The grave which is made of white marble in three steps, presents a simple but sober specimen of the arabesque, The doors were originally of carved sandal wood.


Domed Masjid
Prince Muhammad Azam built in 1678 A.D, a small three domed Masjid which is located about 50· yards west of the tomb of Pari Bibi. The walls of the Masjid are coated with coloured plasters. Another small Masjid and an adjacent tomb built in 1679 A.D, by Haji Khwaja Shahbaz, a business magnate ofDacca are situated at a distance of about half a mile from old Dacca. The walls, which are made of bricks are panelled. The tomb is square in shape, having four central gates, one on each side. This tomb 'represents the average Bengali style of the time of Aurangzeb'.


Red Masjid
A red brick Masjid built by Khan Muhammad Mirdha in 1706 A.D., stands North-west of the Lall Bagh fort. Another Masjid, which is said to have been built by Shaista Khan in 1689 A.D. stands majestically on a low rock near Jafarabad, about two miles outside Dacca. A lot of ornamentation and floral designs, though in decayed form, are still visible inside the Masjid.


Brick Fort
Idrakpur, a place at a distance of about 15 miles from Dacca still contains the dilapidated remains of a small brick fort built in 1660 A.D. by Mir Jumla, the invincible General of Emperor Aurangzeb, who was posted as the Governor of Bengal. It was constructed to provide a check to Portuguese pirates, who had become a nuisance in that part of the Mughal Empire. The fort is 270 feet x 240 feet, containing a long high platform used probably for mounting the big guns. Two other small forts were also built side by side for similar purposes and throw light on the coastal defence measures taken during the 17th century A.D.


Brick Bridge
Mir Jumla is also known to have built a plastered brick bridge over a tributary of the Bari Ganga in 1659--63 A.D. about 5 miles south-east of Dacca. On each side of both ends of the bridge are small projected pavilions. Considering the limitations of engineering during the 17th century, this bridge may be cited as an excellent example of workmanship in these parts of the sub-continent. Besides those in Dacca, there are a number of Mughal architectural monuments scattered on other districts of East Pakistan which include the Tomb of Banda Sahib and Polar Masjid in district Bogra; the Masjids of Shah Muhammad and Aurangzeb in district Mymensing; and the Masjid built by Govind Manikya at Shuja Ganj in district Comilla. All of these bear the characteristics of later Mughal architectural style.

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FINE AND MINOR ARTS


Arab Calligraphy
The Arabic script stands second only to Roman script in the world. It is a script which prevails throughout the Islamic world extending from Morocco in the west to Indonesia in the East.

With the advancement of Arabic culture, greater refinements of taste in almost all walks of life including calligraphy was noticed in Arabia and other Muslim countries where Arabic script was adopted as the national script. The Arabic calligraphy both in beauty and variety was also influenced by local conditions and a few celebrated calligraphers wrote as many as fifty different Arabic scripts. The earliest monuments of Arabic writings are the trilingual (Greek, Syraic and Arabic) inscriptions of Zebed dated 512 A.D. and the bilingual (Greek and Arabic) inscription of the Harran in the Ledja dating 568 A.D.

During the early period of Islam, the principal material written on was leather. 'Besides this palm leaves, camel bones, flat white stones, wooden tables arrd parchments were also used for writing purposes.

The origin of Arabic script has not been established some think it to be a developed form of stiff angular script called kuJi by the Arabs. Balazuri and many others hold it to have been invented in the state of Lakhmids. Ibn Khaldun and Ibn Khalikan corroborate this view and maintain that 'Art of writing spread from Hira or Anbar'. The Arabic script replaced the prevailing script of the countries conquered by the Arabs-Arabic replaced Syraic in Iraq, Syria and Palestine; Pahlevi script in Persia; Coptic and Greek scripts in Egypt and primitive Berber script in North Africa.

The period of the Abbasid Caliphate is the golden era of Islamic culture, distinguished for the great advancement of Arabic sciences and arts. The Arab calligraphy, too, received great impetus during the Abbasids reign, Hitherto Arab calligraphists concentrated ln the writing of the Quran and on monuments of stone, but now greater refinement and variety was visible in the work of Arab calligrapbists.

Greater attention was now paid to the artistic development of Arab calligraphy. During and before the Abbasid rule a script called Khutut existed which was Used for the writing of the Quran and for profane literature. During the Abbasid Caliphate a number of outstanding calligraphists existed. One of them was Gli Bin Ubaida al-lpihani who invented Rihani script. He was also a prolific writer who lived under Mamrim and died,in 834 A.D. The others were Wazir Ibn Mukla (885--940 A.D.) and his brother Abu Abd

Allah Al-Hassan (881--942 or 950 A.D.). No reliable specimen of their art is available escept an alleged autograph of Mukla preserved in the Khedivial Library, These last two calligraphists are taken to be the reformers of written script. Ibn Khaldun holds that kufic characters were changed by Mukla into the present type of script.
Ibn al-Bawwab who died in 1022 or 1032 A.D. was a celebrated Arab calligrapher called 'Ibn al-Sitri-’ He wrote 64 copies of the Quran. One of them was written in Rihani script which is preserved in the Laleli Masjid of Istanbul to which it was given by Sultan Salim I. The Diwan of the pre-Islamic poet Salma bin Jandal copied by him in a beautiful hand was placed in the library of Aba Sufya. He improved Rihani script and invented Muhaqqi script. He started a school of Calligraphy at Baghdad which lasted upto the time of Yaqut al-Mustasimi.

Yakut aI-Mustasimi, the court calligrapher of Al-Mustasim Billah, the last Caliph among the Abbasids acquired great fame. A script called Yakuri derived its name from him. The two Qurans written by him in 1290 and 1291 are still extant and exhibit the stiff Naskhi of the later Persian period. Yaqut's signature is written in a kind of Suls. According to a western critic, "He owes his fame more to fashion than to anything else".

On the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the centre of Arab culture shifted fo Egypt, the largest Muslim country where the Fatimids had formed their Caliphate, During the first half of the 6th Century Hijrah, the round Script was greatly developed and used in books by Arab calligraphers in Egypt. Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt it was mostly used on stone monuments, e.g, Saladin's incriptions on the arch and minbar of the Masjid Aqsa in Jerusalem. During Mamluk rule of Egypt very beautiful designs of round Arabic script were developed by calligraphers and specimens are found in Qurans written for the Sultan and Amirs of Egypt of that period.

During the rule of the Abbasid, Fatimid and other Egyptian dynasties much attention was paid both by government departments and by private individuals to calligraphy. Kalkashandi in the second volume of his great work enumerates 6 different types of official scripts:--
(1) Al-Tumar aI-Kamil (in several variations, used for official correspondence of monarchs).
(2) Mukhfasar al-Tumar (in two variations - al-Muhakkak and al-Thulth).)
(3)AI-Thulih (in two forms--al Thaqil and AI-KhafiS)
(4) Al-Tawki (in three forms).
(5) Al-Rika (in three forms).
(6) AI-Ghubnr (in one form).

During the Mamluk period, stone monuments exhibited graceful script--the letters of which were more elegant and slender than any produced up to that period.

After the fall of the Mamluks, the Ottoman Turks too patronised Arabic calligraphy and much attention was paid to it both officially and privately. As late as the XI century A. W. more than 30 different scripts were known. The celebrated Turkish caHigraphers who left behind immortal specimens of Arabic calligraphy were Hamd Allah (died 1530 A.D.) and Hafiz Othman (Usman) who died in 1698--99 A.D.

Arabic calligraphy declined in Arab countries after the 14th century A.D., but it became more refined and artistic in Muslim countries, especially Persia where Arabic script was adopted and verses of the Quran were frequently written in different forms. The Persians developed Arabic calligraphy to a high degree of perfection. The famous calligraphist Muhammad Rawandi called Najmuddin Abu Bakr Muhammad born at Rawand near Kashan could Write seventy different scripts. Another famous calligrapher Muhammad Husain Tabrizi who received the title of Mihin (greatest) Ustad, has left behind numerous examples of the art of calligraphy. His masterpiece was the inscriptions on the Masjid and Khanqah (sanctuary) of Tabriz which was destroyed in an earthquake.

Arabic calligraphy was developed in different centres where Arabs had settled namely North Africa, Spain, Morocco and Timbuktoo (Nigeria). The Arabic script was modified according to local conditions and was named after local places. In North Africa it was called Maghrabi (western) in Spain It was called Andalusian in Morocco it was called Fasi.

Rare specimen of Arabic calligraphy are still to be seen in the big cities of Islamic world. Greater and greater grace is being added to it.


MINOR ACTS
During the regimes of the pious Caliphs who led simple lives like ordinary mortals and had no palaces, or decorations, the arts could make little headway. But soon thereafter, during the Omayyad Caliphate when Caliphs preferred a life of pomp and pageantry the minor arts received unprecedented encouragement and Muslim artisans became pioneers in the sphere of Minor arts too, The Abbasids who were greatly influenced by Persian culture, built grand palaces and distinguished themselves as great patrons of arts and learning. The other countries where Muslim minor arts flourished were Muslim Spain, Persia and Mughal India; 'Islam was the direct heir to many ancient craft traditions unknown to the west", writes A. H. Christiein thelegacy oflslam. "ln much the same way that Muslim scholars transmitted to posterity a large fund of ancient learning, Muslim artisans preserved, developed and spread abroad the traditional workshop practice of arts in the orient, which had either never penetrated Europe, or, if known there in former times, had decayed during the period of storm and stress that ushered in the middle ages"' Islamic art had its beginnings in the Masjid. The early Masjids were simple constructions without any decorations. But soon Masjids were refined and mahrab and minbar were added to them. Decorations in architectral design and furniture were provided in the Masjids. The contact of Arab conquerors with the more cultured conquered nations of Persia and Rome enlarged their vision regarding art and architecture which stimulated the development of art in Muslim countries.

The Muslims soon became great builders and produced skilful artisans. 'Their genius realised definite, architectural ideas with acute technical insight'. Their ideological objections to the presentation of human form, prevented the growth of painting and sculptures among them. But, on the other hand they showed great artistic taste and ingenuity in the ornamentation and design of natural objects which surpassed all presentations of their predecessors. The Muslim artists, artisans and craftsmen soon acquired such a reputation that their products were keenly sought in the Royal houses of distant Europe. "The most casual survey of Islamic art will show that ornamental designs must be ranked as the outstanding minor art evolved by Muslim genius", writes a western writer. In place of artistic decoration through presentation of human images in colour or mortar, Muslims evolved another feature of ornamentation by the use of Arabic inscriptions, passages from the Holy Quran and the name as well as date of death were artistically inscribed on the graves of important people. The Arab dalligraphists showed great ingenuity in the artistic renderings of Arabic fetters on stones, paper and wood which immensely popularised this art in Islamic countries. Later, during the closing period of the Abbasid Caliphate and the Mughal Empire of India, passages from the Holy Quran and verses of Persian poets were artistically inscribed on the walls of tombs and Masjids. The front arch of the famous Taj Mahal of Agra presents an unique specimen of an artistic inscription from the Holy Quran.

Pottery made of clay and glass were developed to a high standard of perfection in Muslim countries. The chief beauty.of high class pottery manufactured in Islamic countries lay in the floral designs, neat finish, riot of colours and glazed surface. China had been the workshop of high class pottery long before the advent of Islam, but after the 9th century A.D., Muslim potters rivalled and even excelled their Chinese counterparts. According to western writers, 'blue and white' colours were used for pottery in China, but the typical blue was an innovation of Muslim potters and even in China it was known as 'Muhammadan Blue'. This colour was superbly used on certain wares made at Kutahia (Asia Minor) during the 15th and 16th centuries A.D. As regards artisanship, Muslim pottery occupies an outstanding place. The Muslim potters exhibited great originality by inventing new designs. The excavations carried on by archaeologists in Muslim countries have revealed high class glazed pottery in the ruins of Fustat (old Cairo), Samarra (old Baghdad) and Rayy, In the field of lustre or glazed pottery Muslims achieved great success. Pieces of such wares of different varieties used during the IOth century A.D. have been found in North Africa and Spain. Fustat (old Cairo) was a great centre of pottery making from the 9th century to the 11th century A.D. and the famous Persian traveller Nassir Khusrau has described in detail the wares used there during the 9th century A.D.

During the regime of the Abbasids, art and architecture registered phenomenal progress. The excavations at Samarra have brought out exceptionally high class wares used by the Abbasids.

This pottery bears even the date of manufacture and hence is of much historical value. Sa'ad was the most skilled potter who signed his wares. Egypt did not lag behind and lustre painting was an innovation of Egyptian potters,The material used in Egypt was different from the pink and yellowish Baghdad clay.

The Spanish Muslims, too, developed this handicraft to a high degree and created a new tradition known as Hispano-Moresque. Valencia was the centre of painted pottery and specialised in the manufacture of drug jars. The Italians later successfully emulated Spanish lustre pottery. Toledo and Cordova and Malaga made exquisite pottery. The Iranian wares like those of Egypt, were made of a hard white paste with transparent alkaline glaze. But these were of finer quality. Iran which has been the cradle of Islamic culture introduced ornamentation in pottery. Sultanabad in Persia was the manufacturing centre of a special type of dark blue and black wares during the 13th and 14th centuries. Rayy was a great centre of the ceramic industry and made typical miniature wares. The craftsmen in Rayy introduced several novelties. Abul Qasim, a member of a distinguished family of Iranian potters had written a treatise in 1301 A.D. on the technique of pottery making adopted by the Saljuq Turk potters. The manuscript of this treatise is available in the Museum of Istanbul. The Saljuq wares are known for their glaze, wealth of bright colour and hardness. The floral designs were commonly used in the pottery made in Damascus and Persia. But the Persian wares of this type were exceptionally graceful. The chief characteristic of pottery made in Asia Minor was its red colour, which was conspicuous by its absence in Syria.

The ·gold and silver works of the period of early Islam are non-extant. The earliest extant silver work of Islam is a casket in the cathedral of Gerona which is made of wood sheathed with silver-gilt plating heavily patterned in response with scrolling foliation'. This casket was made by two craftsmen Badr and Tarif for a courtier of Al-Hakam II (961--76 A.D.) the Omayyad ruler of Spain. The Muslim goldsmiths and craftsmen had excelled in metal work. They introduced several novelties in engraving, caring and floral designs. "Other ways of decorating metals besides raising patterns in relief or engraving them were practised by the Muslim craftsmen. They excelled in the art of inlaying designs in gold and silver, in bronze and brass; a process performed in several ways, known as 'damascening'.... In the 15th century the oriental trade established by Italian cities during the Crusades flourished exceedingly. Eastern products became popular in the splendid pageantry of the petty Italian princes, whose workmen adopted them as models and began to emulate their triumphs. In Venice Muslim metal work inspired native craftsmen so profoundly that a distinct Venetian-oriental school arose in which Muslim technique and designs were adapted to the renaissance taste". The Royal palaces in Muslim states bore metal wares of exceptional beauty and designs. The famous Muslim historian al-Maqrizi gives a long list of heirlooms hoarded in the palaces of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt which include vases for narcissus flowers and violets, golden birds and trees set with precious stones. The Persian traveller Nassir Khusrau who had a chance to see the Fatimid Palace in 1047 describes a throne kept in the 12th room which bore excellent metal work and was decorated with scenes of a chase. This had a wonderful golden trellis. Among the Abbasid Palaces of Baghdad was one named Dar-us-Shajar. It contained a tree in the middle of a tank made entirely of gold, with birds perched on its branches made also of gold and studded with precious stones. The Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan was of exquisite artistic beauty. It was made of gold set with precious stones. The bronze, brass and copper works of the early Islamic period are extant. One of these is a huge bronze Criffin which stands in Pisa (Italy) which was probably brought from the Fatimid Palace of the 11th century A.D. The inlaid metal work in Muslim countries reached its peak during the 12th century A.D. and Muslim craftsmen were considered by all to be the masters of this art; A specimen of this period is a brass ewer kept in the British Museum. A large number of metal wares and articles with inlaid work made for decorative purposes were introduced by Muslim craftsmen during the 13th and 14th centuries A.D. New designs were invented day after day which could satisfy the refined tastes of cultured and wealthy Muslims. . The Persian craftsmen during these centuries introduced greater refinements in their metal wares compared to Mughal and Egyptian ones. But the devastation, wrought by Mongol hordes in Baghdad, Syria, Persia and Turkistan struck a death blow to the pursuits of arts and scattered their art treasures as well as their artisans.

In wood and ivory works too, Muslim artisans excelled during mediaeval times and introduced several novel features. Floral designs and engraving of letters in wood and ivory works were common features. Several decorative devices in wood wares were used which included assembling of small panels, floral designs, engraving of letters and making figures of birds and animals. Mudejar craftsmen excelled in woodwork, textiles and pottery.

Ivory work, too, was highly developed in Muslim countries. Cordova, the capital of Muslim Spain was a great centre of ivory work and in the 1Oth century A.D. it housed a school of ivory carving, which produced beautiful things of ivory including caskets, toilet, perfume and jewellery boxes, with paintings, representing musical performances and hunting scenes. One of the finest examples of this work is a cylindrical casket kept in the Museo Arguelogico at Madrid which was made in 964 A.D. and was presented as a gift by the Caliph Al-Hakam II to his wife. Another superb example of Muslim ivory work is a remarkable rock crystal ewer in the treasury of Saint Marks, Venice, which bears the name of the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Aziz. "The Arabs in Spain", writes Philip K. Hitti, "carried on almost all the minor and practical arts developed by Muslims in other lands. In metal work involving decoration, raising patterns in relief or engraving them, inlaying with gold and silver and inscribing characters, the Hispano-Moresque School excelled....In the 15th century we find imitations of this Muslim pottery produced as far North as Holland. From Spain the industry was meanwhile introduced into Italy. Its influence is noticeable in the later Spanish vessels, with their pseudo-Arabic inscriptions ·and Christian heraldic devices. In other forms of ceramics, as well as mosaics, especially tile and blue faince, the Spanish Mulim school distinguished itself. The various kinds of coloured tiles still favourites in Spain and Portugal are a legacy from the Arabs, as the name azulejo, suggests”.

Decorative tiles were used in the walls and floor of buildings in Asia Minor and Syria. During the 16th century A.D. some of the large buildings in Constantinople and Brussa (Ottomail Turkey) had their wells gleaming with beautiful tiles with black outlines and coloured in green, blue and red. The Syrian tiles, on the other hand had floral designs and were distinguished from Turkish tiles. The Kashani tiles which were introduced into Syria from Persia were much preferred for the interior decoration of buildings.
The glass industry thrived in Syria where material for glass manufacture was found in abundance. All sorts of glass wares were manufactured in the Syrian towns of Antioch, Alleppo and Damascus. The process of enamelling and gilding glass was perfected by the craftsmen ofTyres. The Spanish manufactured glass was inferior to that of Syria. The Syrian glass was highly priced in Mediaeval Europe. The Syrian glass wares included lamps, lamp shades and vessels of exceptionally beautiful designs. The museums of Louvre, London and Cairo contain exquisite pieces of pottery, glass and metal wares excavated from the ruins of Fustat and Samarra.

.The Egyptian and Spanish binders excelled in leather binding which was later introduced and copied in Europe. The Persians had specialised in the industry of carpet weaving since the days of early Islam. Even during the present day Persian carpets are considered to be the finest in the world. Hunting and garden scenes were favoured in rug designs. Thus minor arts were developed to a high degree of perfection in Muslim countries during mediaeval times. The wares manufactured in Muslim countries were in great demand all over the civilized world. Writing in Legacy of lslam, A. H. Christie admits, "For more than a thousand years Europe has looked upon Islamic art as a thing of wonder; at first largely because it was closely associated with lands deemed the Christian heritage, but later solely by reason of its own intrinsic beauty....With the Crusades a new era opened. The half fabulous magnificence traditionally ascribed to the Saracens became a reality to astonished Christendom. A host drawn from every part of Europe came suddenly into close contact with a social order that in every respect outraged the harrow limits of their experience. In every activity of life the reactions of this impact with alien progress soon became apparent, and in art its results were by no means the least far reaching. As time went on Italian merchants established direct traffic with Syrian ports, oriental trade became regularly organised and all kinds of rare things from Islamic workshops arrived in European markets. These imports met new-found needs, aroused emulation wherever they went,and opened up lines of development either immediately or in subtle ways destined to mature in the future"