MUSLIM SOCIAL ORDER--I


Justice in Early Islam
Islam, a religion based on democratic and socialist principles has laid great emphasis on the equality and brotherhood of man, which could not be achieved without imparting equitable and impartial justice to all. The Great Prophet of Islam has from the very beginning, stressed this vital moral aspect and the high standard attained in the administration and application of justice during the early Islamic period, effaced from memory the proverbial justice of Nausherwan.

Even before the advent of Islam, a practice known as Half-al-fudul (the oath of voluntary justice) was prevalent among the Arabs, in which the chivalrous volunteers of the order sided with the oppressed even at the risk of their lives, and were not contented until full justice was done. This organization which was a terror for the criminals and the tyrants continued functioning upto the Omayyad Caliphate. Other methods of obtaining redress in pre-Islamic Arabia were (I)through local tribunal composed of tribal elders from which there was no appeal. (2) through Rahins (Soothsayers) from which there was no appeal,an institution similar to that of the Oracle of Delphi (Greek) (3) through arbitration by notable chieftains. This was the most important method of deciding complicated cases and inter-tribal feuds. The Chieftains of Bani Tamim, acted for generations as arbitrators for the whole of Arabia. During the early Islamic days, the Prophet who was noted for his piety, honesty and integrity throughout Arabia, served as the supreme judge for Muslims. The highest appeal lay with him and his judgment was considered as final in all controversial matters. On his migration from Makkah to Madina he laid down certain rules and regulations for the guidance of the Muhajreen and Ansar which may be taken as the basis of the constitution of the first Islamic State. After mentioning the confederal units of the Muhajirs and Ansars in the preliminary chapters, he deals with the importance of maintaining high standards of justice in an Islamic State. The Prophet appointed a special Court of Law when both parties were Jews and such cases were decided according to the rules laid down in the Taurat. According to Kara-lev Skij, during the Caliphate of Hazrat Abu Bakr such courts were established to decide cases between non-Muslims.

The Prophet had nominated Naqibs and Arifs for the Muslims of Medina, even before his arrival there. Naqibs who represented 12 tribes, were responsible for maintaining peace and order in their area. Arifs worked-under Naqibs. The final appeal in disputes lay with the Prophet, who was the supreme judge.

Muaz bin Jabal was appointed by the'Prophet of Islam as the first Qazito al-Janed in al-Yemen. Muaz had a farewell audience with the Prophet, which occupies an important place in the history of Islamic jurisprudence. The Prophet enquired "How will you decide the cases?"

"I shall decide according to the Book of God", replied Muaz,

"And if there is nothing on the subject in the Book of God", asked the Prophet.

"Then according to the practice (Sunnah) of the Apostle of God", replied Muaz.

"And if there is nothing in the practice of the Apostle of God?" enquired the Prophet.

“Then I will use my own judgment added Muaz.

Thereupon the Apostle of God said, "Praise be to God who enabled the envoy of the Apostle of God to say what has satisfied him (Prophet)"

In ancient Semitic laws, if a man killed the daughter or son of the other, his son or daughter was to be killed. But Islam changed this law and the Prophet of Islam differentiated between intentional and accidental murders and motive was made the determining factor in awarding punishments.

The revision of judgments was allowed and during the Caliphate of Hazrat Omar people were at liberty to complain against the highest authorities at the time of Haj, when people assembled in Makkah from distant corners of the Islamic world. Hazrat Omar showed no softness toward the highest State official if he was found guilty, the higher the position the stricter and severer was Omar's scrutiny of his conduCt' .

When Hazrat Ali was appointed judge of Yemen, the Prophet instructed him that he should not decide the case without taking the statements of both the parties. "The burden of proof", said the Prophet, "lies with the claimant and the defendant who denies the claim, must deny on oath". This principle of law is followed by all courts at the present time. Qazi Shurayh made an important amendment in the witness laws. Formerly all witnesses appeared together, He suggested that witnesses should appear separately before the Qazi. Qazi Shurayh who was appointed by Hazrat Omar as the supreme judge of Iraq imparted impartial justice for about 75 years and is reputed to have been one of the most brilliant legal luminaries of the Islamic world. The Prophet had appointed paid judges and Attab bin Asid, Qazi of Makkah who was paid 30 Dirhams per month was one of them, Hazrat Omar, the second Caliph of Islam fixed handsome salaries for the Qazis so that they might be free from temptations and corruption.

Jails, too, were constructed by Hazrat Abu Bakr and his successors. The first court building was constructed by Hazrat Osman, and was called Darul Qada.

The Head of the State in Islam was never considered above the law. The British conception that. the king can do no wrong, has never been accepted in Islam and legal action could be taken against the highest authorities. The Holy Prophet, himself, entertained claims made against him and personally appeared in several civil suits filed against him. It has been proved by historical records that such great Caliphs as Hazrat Omar and Ali as well as several autocratic Caliphs of the Omayyad and Abbasid dynasties were summoned into the courts of the Qazi and no regard for their exalted position was shown. On the contrary Hazrat Omar and Ali resented the ordinary respect if shown to them by the Qazi.

The administration of justice in Islam was made easy due to the sanctity attached to the law in Islam in addition to the sanction of the Government. According to Islam the principal law giver is the Almighty God who is Omniscient and Omnipresent, He delivers His commands and ordinances through His Apostle (Prophet) and the Holy Book (Quran). The sinner among Muslims has to take into consideration both the moral (Divine) and physical (Governmental) sanctions before committing a sin. The dread of punishment in this world and the hereafter keeps him away from sins and he thinks twice before committing them.


Application
The classical sermon given by the Prophet in his farewell pilgrimage in the 10 A.H., contains the fundementals of Human Rights, when he said that the three elementary rights of man namely Life, Property and Honour will be duly respected in Islam. The Prophet's judgment in various controversial matters, between tribe and tribe, Muslims and non-Muslims, forms the land-mark of the history of jurisprudence. He was equally relied upon by his friends and foes. Even his deadliest enemies the, Quraish of Makkah had given him the title of al-dmin (Trusted) and never questioned is integrity of character. He was kind and just even to his enemies.

Hazrat Abu Bakr Sjddiq, the first Caliph of Islam kept up the noble traditions of his master and ensured impartial justice in his fast expanding Empire. Addressing the people after his election as the first Caliph of Islam he delivered a memorable speech: "Now I have been elected your Caliph, although I am no better than you. Co-operate with me if I am right; set me right if I go astray. Truth is atrust, falsehood is a treason. The weak among you shall be strong with me, till his right has been vindicated and the strong among you shall be weak with me, till I have taken what is due from him. Obey me as long as I obey God and His Prophet. When I disobey Him and His Prophet then, obey me not", The principles enunciated above formed the skeet anchor of his justice. Hazrat Omar was appointed the Chief Qazi of his Caliphate, but people had grown so honest in their public dealings that not a single case was brought before him for one year. Zaid bin Sabit, Hazrat Ali, and Hazrat Osman acted as Honorary Khatibs. The Caliphate of Hazrat Omar forms the golden epoch of the administration of Islamic justice, The second Caliph of Islam is particularly known for his impartial justice. Justice during his reign was administered by Qazis who were appointed by the Caliph and were free from the control of the Governors. He ·was the first man who separated the judiciary from the executive, thus ensuring free and impartial justice. "The judge was named and is still named", says Von Hammer, the Hakim-us-Sharaa, i.e, ruler through the law, for law rules through the utterance of justice, and the power of the Governor carries out the utterances of it. Thus the Islamic adiministration, even in its infancy, proclaims even in word and in deed the necessary separation between judicial and executive; power".' Such separation of executive from the judiciary has not been attained by any of the most civilized sfates of modern times, The administration of justice during his time was perfectly impartial and the Caliph himself set an example by carrying out the orders of the Qazi.

The letter written by the second Caliph to Abu Musa Ashaari, detailing the fundamental principles of justice is an invaluable piece of jurisprudence which can favourably be compared with the Roman law. The Caliph took particular care to enforce the equality of justice. In the eyes of the law all are equals.. He personally visited several courts in order to have practical experience of their working. Once he had to attend the court of Qazi Zaid Bin Sabit as a defendant. On the arrival of the Caliph in the court, the Qazi stood up as a mark of respect. Hazrat Omar objected to it saying that it was against the conventions of the court and took his seat by the side of the plaintiff. The case proceeded on and in the end the Caliph had to give his statement on oath, but the Qazi exempted him from doing so. Again the Just Caliph extremely resented this preferential treatment to his person and warned him,''Unless you consider an ordinary man and Omar as equals, you are not fit for the post of a Qazi"

Jablah bin Al-Aiham Ghassani was the ruler of a small Staet in Syria. He was converted to Islam and one day, when he was offering Haj, a part of his gown was trampled upon by a poor Arab. Jablah gave him a slap. The Arab, paid him back in the same coin. The infuriated Jablah hurried to the Caliph and wanted that the Arab should be severely dealt with. The Caliph told Jablah that he had already received justice. Thereupon Jablah added, "Had he done such an insult to me in my country, he would have been hanged". The Caliph replied calmly, "Such was the practice here in pre-Islamic days but now the pauper and the prince are equals before Islam".

Hazrat Omar was very strict in the enforcement of impartial justice and did not spare his near and dear ones if they were at fault. Once his own son Abu Shahma was reported to have drunk wine. The Caliph flogged his son with his own hands, till he died, and the remaining strips were delivered on his corpse. He awarded a similar punishment to his brother-inlaw. The history of the world can hardly produce greater respect for justice.
Hazrat Ali was the greatest Mujtahid (Jurist) of early Islam. He solved the knotty problems and cases which defied solution. He was the principal adviser on religious, legal and constitutional matters during the reign of the first two Caliphs. Once two women were brought before him who were quarrelling over an infant child -each claiming it. Hazrat Ali ordered that the child should be cut into pieces. The real mother was overwhelmed with grief and renounced her claim. Hazrat Ali awarded the child to the real mother and punished the other woman.

When Hazrat Ali was Caliph, he was summoned to the court of a Qazi, A Jew had filed a suit against him and claimed the Caliph's armour. The Caliph called at the court and stood by the side of the claimant (Plaintiff) and did not tolerate any consideration for his exalted position.. The claimant (Jew) produced several witnesses in support of his claim. The Qazi enquired from Hazrat Ali whether he had anything to say in his defence. The Caliph replied in the negative and the Qazi decided the case in favour of the Jew and awarded him the armour which the Caliph had actually purchased from him. The Jew was much struck with the impartial judgment of the Qazi and returned the armour to the Caliph, saying, that the Caliph had actually purchased the armour from him (Jew). He had filed the suit in order to test the impartiality of the Caliph and his court which magnificently stood the test. Hazrat Omar used to say ahaut Hazrat Ali, "God forbid we may not be confronted with any controversial problem which Ali might not solve"

Hazrat Omar bin Abdul Aziz the Omayyad Caliph was known for his piety and justice. During his short Caliphate of 29 years, he re-orientated the administration of justice on a sound footing. Even the claim of an ordinary citizen was recognised against the most powerful members of the Omayyad dynasty. The proverb that the goats and wolves roamed about together had become true during his reign.

Imam Abu Hanifa was the greatest legal mind of Islam, but he declined to associate himself with the Omayyad and Abbasid Caliphates which had been converted into monarchies and he had to pay a high price for this refusal. Once the Abbasid Caliph Mansur offered him the high post of the Grand Qazi of his vast Empirer The Imam` bluntly. replied: "supposing a complaint is lodged against you in my court and you want that the case should be decided in your favour, otherwise you would throw me in the river. Then please rest assured that I would prefer to be drowned in the river rather than decide against justice". This out spoken curt reply silenced the Caliph for the time being. But on another occasion, Mansur again offered this high post to the Imam. The Imam again refused the job saying that he was not fit for that. The Caliph shouted out, "You are a liar". The Imam replied calmly, "you have verified my contention. A liar is unfit for the host of a Qazi". The Caliph was nonplussed by this logical reply and swore that the Imam would have to accept the post of Grand Qazi. The Imam too swore that he would not. The whole Durbar was stunned by the boldness of Imam.

The Imam was known for his great learning and legal brain throughout the Islamic world. The Caliph privately consulted him on controversial issues and his judgments were highly respected by all. Once there had been some dispute between the Abbasid Caliph Mansur and his wife Hurrsl Khatun. Khatun wanted the matter to be referred to Imam Abu Hanifa. The Imam was summoned by the Caliph and his wife also sat behind the curtain. The Caliph asked the Imam, "How many wives are allowed in Islam at a time"?

"Four", replied the Imam.
Mansur cried out to his wife, "Did you listen what the Imam has said"?

The Imam added at once, "But there is one condition. a man is permitted to marry more than one wife, provided he is capable of imparting justice and granting equal rights to all of his wives".

The last part of the Imam's reply went against the interests of the Caliph. On reaching home, in the evening, he found a man waiting for him with a bag of guineas and a letter of thanks from the wife of the Caliph. The Imam returned the money with a word that it was his duty to speak the truth without having any consideration for fear or favour.
Qazi Abu Yusuf,a pupil of Imam Abu Hanifa was appointed the Grand Qazi of the Abbasid Empire during the reign of the celebrated Harun-ar-Rashid. On several occasions he delivered judgments against the interests of Empress Zubaida, the favourite wife Of the Caliph, without caring for the consequences.

Such was the high standard of justice maintained during the period of early Islam, which has hardly any parallel in the long history of jurisprudence.

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SOCIAL ORDER--II
RIGHTS OF DEPENDENTS, RELATIONS AND NEIGHBOURS


Islam is a practical Religion. Its principles, social and economic, political and religious have been formulated on realistic and rational lines, which gave birth to a healthier society based on equality and brotherhood.

Like the Bible and the Taurat the entire ethical teachings of Islam may be summarised in the phrase "Love and service of humanity"--but this is not enough and Islam being a complete religion has given the details of this service mentioning the priorities to be given to individuals or groups in such a service. This order in the social system formulated by Islam is its greatest achievement which is unparalleled in the annals of various religions of the world. The social order of Islam is not guided by sentiment but by justice and has fully taken into consideration human psychology and nature. The great Prophet of Islam once said, "It is the height of faith that you should like for your brother whatever you like for yourself". This amply explains the duties and rights prescribed by Islam for various groups and individuals which is based on the relations and connections among thein.

Such a prescription of rights according to relationships-is quite natural and does not lead to internal and social conflicts which is too prevalent among members of other religions and which has led some of the religions, e.g., the Hindu religion tb revise its social order and hereditary rights in accordance wlth the light shown by Islam, Recently the Hindu code has been revised and its hereditary system in which the women had no right has been formulated along the lines of the Islamic hereditary system. Islam while awarding rights has laid greater stress on their utility and relationships--one should prefer a man to an animal, a friend to a stranger, a relation to an acquaintance and amongst relations those who are nearest should be helped first. But it forbids uncalled for or illegal help even to one's dearest and nearest relations. Such a scientic classification of rights as formulated by Islam is non-existent in other religions of the world. Some religions like the Buddhist and the Hindu have kept man and animal in the same category in terms of help and treatment. The Jews and Christians have emphasised the respect due to parents, but are silent on the rights of other relations, Islam has given in detail the rights of various relations and has prepared a list of the recipients of rights giving priority to those who are closest. Such a division is psychological and is based on philosophy. If a man can help only one individual and has a poor sick mother, a poor sick relation, a poor sick neighbour-then he should naturally advance his help to his sick mother who is closest to him and this is what Islam says. Anything other than this would be cruelty and totally against nature. The Holy Quran in Surah Nisa has laid down clear injuctions on the matter when it says, "Be helpful to your mother, father, relations, orphans, destitutes, related neighbours, stranger neighbours, friends, travellers and slaves" The rights of various groups and individual as graded by the Holy Quran is natural and practical but almost all other religions of the world are silent on the matter.

Islam on the other hand preaches universal brotherhood and enjoins its followers to be kind to all of humanity and make the best use of the worldly things which have been created for them by discharging their duties to needy persons. According to the reliable Hadith of Bukhari the holy Prophet once said, "The man who. plants a tree is blessed when people and birds are benefitted with its fruits. A man was sent to Paradise, because he saved a thirsty dog from death by offering him water and the other was condemned because he tied and starved to death a cat".:,"The Muslims", says a Hadith, "are a single hand like a compact wall whose bricks support each other". 'These ideas are found in every part of the law--both public and private.


Parents Rights
Of all the worldly beings, a mother should receive the greatest attention of her son and she tops the list recipients of rights in Islam. Even the Christian religions have upheld and given the highest parents after God.. · "Paradise lies under the your mother says the Holy Prophet of Islam. The mother deserves the help and attention of her children as it was she who nourished them with her blood, Islam has quite naturally given her the greatest right. The Holy Quran, in no less than 12 places enjoins upon the faithful to fulfil their duties toward their parents. Once in reply to a companion the Prophet said, "your mother has the greatest rights on your resources and then your father"--and he further said, "Disobedience to one's mother is against Islam" This superiority of parents is quite psychological, as, after God, man is most grateful to his mother for his physical birth, nourishment and early growth and to his father for his education and financial support. Islam says that the pleasure of God rests on the pleasure of parents and a faithful should try to please his parents by his obedience. The great Prophet Abraham prayed to God for the forgiveness of his father, though he was a non-believer (Kafir). Even a Muslim cannot go on Jihad (holy war) without the permission of his mother and once the Great Prophet asked a Muslim to serve his aged mother rather than go on holy war, The mother, after the death of her son is entitled to 1/8 of the property left by her son.


Children's Rights
Next to parents, come the children in the matter of classification of Rights. Just as the parents have rights over their children, so the children too have some rights over their parents. Before the advent of Islam, hardly any rights of children over parents were recognised. Islam was first to formulate reasonable rules for the rights of dependents ·and relations-both hereditary and social. According to Tirmizi, the Prophet once said, "Anyone who is not kind to his youngers and obedient to his elders is not from us" If the world had acted upon this golden rule, all the Social conflicts would have disappeared long ago. The Arabs, before the advent of Islam killed their male issues because of poverty and buried alive their daughters in order to avoid the so-called humiliation of their marriage. The Hindus too sacrificed their children at the altar of the gods. Islam vehemently opposed such inhuman oppression of the sacred creations of God and recognised life as a birth right. The second right of the child in the social order of the world is its nourishment and early growth, which its parents should ungrudgingly provide for it. The child has a right to get the milk of its mother up to two years. The father should financially support his son and daughter till his or her maturity and also arrange for their proper education. Even the fostermother and foster-brothers and sisters have been given substantial rights in Islam, The Holy Prophet of Islam showed great respect to his foster-mother Halima. The Holy Quran has enjoined upon the faithful to work for the cultural, moral, physical and spiritual development of their children in these immortal words, "0, faithfuls, you should save yourself as well as your children from the Fire". According to Islamic law a female issue is entitled to 1/2 of the heriditary rights of the male issue. The Hindu religion till lately recognised no hereditary rights for female members which led to great complications and conflicts and in a recent revision of the Hindu code the claim of female issues has been recognised on the lines of the Islamic system.


Matrimonial Rights
The third place in the graded list of Islamic rights is occupied by wife and husband. The household happiness entirely depends on the cordial relations between husband and wife. The wife is entitled to 1/4 of the husband's properties after his death provided he leaves behind no issue. Almost all the leading religions of the world except Islam preach asceticism and abhor matrimonial fife. The highest life prescribed by Buddhist, Hindu and Christian religions is that of renunciation of the world and these have no place for the rights of women especially for a wife in their social system. The wife, if any, should work for the comforts of her husband without demanding any privileges from him, The life of an, orthodox Hindu wife is worse than that of the slave girls found in mediaeval times. Islam revolted against this inhuman treatment of the fair sex, and gave women their due right and place in society, Islam, quite naturally has acknowledged the superiority of husband over wife, as he is supposed to be her guardian and financial supporter. The wife is entitled to financial support from her husband, while her husband is entitled to all her love. Islam has divided the household life into two parts - the maintenance of internal household affairs is bestowed to woman, while the man is responsible for the management of outside works. · Once the Holy Prophet of Islam proclaimed, "If I would have alowed the worship of any one other than that of God, I would have asked the wife to worship her husband". The wife can claim financial help from her husband if she is not on good terms with him. She even can claim the charges of supplying milk to his infant child.


Relation's Rights
The fourth place in the list of rights is occupied by relatives among whom there are subdivisions--the nearest relations coming first. Of all the great religions of the world, Islam has given the greatest importance to the rights of relations, which is but natural and which if faithfully adhered to would have eliminated household and social conflicts from the world. Not less than 12 times the Holy Quran reminds the faithful of the rights of their needy relations. In Surah Rum the Holy Quran says, "you should acknowledge the right of your relations". Once the Great Prophet of Islam declared, "one who is unmindful to the rights of his relations will hardly enter Paradise". 'Succour your brother, be he the aggressor or the aggrieved, so said the Prophet. The Companions enquired 'as for the aggrieved,it is alright, and,how could they help the aggressor?'

'Stop him from aggression", came the immortal reply.


Neighbonrs Rights
Human beings are dependent upon one another in this world and the development of a healthy society is dependeht upon the cordial relations of its members. Mutual help is the key-note of all good social orders. Islam, being a practical religion has laid great stress on the assistance of neighbours. A man is generally harmed by his neighbours and if he has good relations with them, he is bound to lead a happy social life. Even before Islam, Arabs maintained good relations with their neighbours, but Islam with slight modification in its classification has enhanced the rights of neighbours. It does not behove a good Muslim to enjoy a good dinner if his neighbour is hungry. Addressing his companions once the great Prophet of Islam said, "The Muslim who has a true faith in God and the Day of Judgement will never oppress his neighbour". A Muslim must help his poor needy neighbour according to his capacities and it is the right of that neighbour to receive such help. Islam enjoins upon the Muslim women folk to send presents to their neighbours in the form of food, money and other things. The words of the Prophet had such a salutary effect upon his companions that all of them became the servants of their neighbours irrespective of caste and creed. "By the law of Islam" says Ameer Ali, "every individual is bound to contribute a certain part of substance towards the help and assistance of poorer neighbours. This portion is usually 2 1/2 percent on the value of goods, chattels, emblements, on profits of trade, mercantile business, etc." Writing in the Legacy of lslam, David De Santillana says "The Prophet uttered some charming words with regard to neighbourly relations:--"Be kind to your neighbour, Draw the veil over him. Avoid injury. Look upon him with an eye of kindness, If you see him doing evil forgive him. If you see him doing good to you, proclaim your thankfulness".

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ECONOMIC SYSTEM OF ISLAM


Islam, being a practical Religion has evolved a complete code of life which has successfully fulfilled the requirements of the changing times, Not only in the social but also in the economic field it has given an ideal lead to the people,

Of all the beneficial principles propounded by Islam, none are more useful for humanity at large than those governing income and expenditure. The main sources of income to the Islamic Exchequer are Zakat, Ghanimhh, Jizyah (Tithe) and Kharaj. Zakat which literarlly means growth and purity is a tax on Muslim Capital owned beyond a certain minimum. Zakat occupies an important place amongst the(Fhrz) Fundamentals of Islam, the observance of which is binding on Muslims. It is an ordinance (Farz). According to the Holy Prophet of Islam (upon whom be peace), it was to be taken from the rich among them in order to be given to the poor. "This beneofficial tax is called Zakat", writes Aghnides, in Muliammadan theories of Finance "because of its giving lead to an increase of prosperity in this world and growth of religious merit in the Next" The Zakat is a tax levied on capital goods" and is due when one is in "possession of full ownership of a productive Nisab(minimum) of property; and its raye is 2 1/2% of the value of possessions other than land". Tithe is a tax levied on the agricultural produce of the land. The Holy Quran enjoins upon the faithful to pay this tax in these words: "And on the day of its harvest give its Right" (VI:142). The Prophet of Islam determines its rate as,'In what has been irrigated with rainwater, one tenth and in what has been watered with buckets or water wheels, one half of the one tenth" (Mishkat). Both these taxes were charged from Muslims only. The Zakat (Growth Tax) is distinguished from the other taxes because it is spent exclusively on poor and needy persons. The Holy Quran states, "The charities are (exclusively) for the poor and needy, and those who collect it and those whose hearts are to be reconciled and to free the captives and debtors and for the cause of God--a duty imposed by God" (IX:16). This tax has throughout the centuries contributed immensely to ameliorating the condition of the poor and has raised their standard of living by bringing them nearer to rich--economically and socially. This ideal tax which is levied on idle as well as productive wealth, discourages the accumulation of wealth and ensures its investment for productive and beneficial purposes. The Prophet once remarked, "Are there those among you who are the guardians of orphans who possess property? Then let them trade with it and not leave it uninvested. So that the Zakat Taxes due on it do not swallow it up" (AI-Tirmizi). The other sources of wealth obtained in abnormal times are Ghanimah, Jizyah and Kharaj. Ghanimah is the wealth obtained during the wars, one-fifth of which was deposited in the Baitul Mal (Public Exchequer). The Jizyah is a tax levied on non-Muslims in lieu of military service which is compulsory for Muslims but not for non-Muslims. The amount of Jizyah is much less than theZakat which is levied on Muslims only. The non-muslims paying Jizyah were exempt from compulsory military service in a Muslim State but were entitled to full protection. The Kharaj is the annual levy paid by the conquered countries to the Muslims. The public coffers in which the wealth obtained through all these four sources was deposited was known as Baitul Mal. In the days of the Khulafa-i-Raashidin (Pious Caliphs) when the principles of Islam were strictly followed, the Baitul Mal played a vital role in building up the sound economy of the Muslims. Out of this Public Treaslury were financed the needy, destitutes; orphans and other charitable institutions. It was due to this Baitul Mal that there could hardly be found any needy person among the Arabs, who before constituted one of the poorest nations in the world. The faithful adherence to payment of Zakat Tax and the strict maintenance of Baitul Mal during the time of the Holy Prophet of Islam and his four companions led to the prosperity and the raising of the standard of living in Muslim countries. Thus the saying of 'the Prophet of Islam came to be true, "Give Sadaqat freely, as a time is to come when people will offer ISadaqat and there would be none (needy person) to receive them" (Mishkat). In the short period of 30 years, the Arab economy was established on a sound footing. But during the Omayyad regime, the Baitul Mal was misused and instead of utilizing this fund for purely charitable and public purposes, the Caliphs hence-forward used it for furthering their personal interests. Since that time the Baitul Mal, ceased to possess any importance and degenerated into an ordinary Imperial Treasury. Undoubtedly there were a few exceptions and Muslim rulers like Hazrat Omar Bin Abdul Aziz, Sultan Nasiruddin of Delhi and Aurangzeb Alamgir refrained from spending money out of the public treasury. The Waqf (Endowment) has been instrumental in financing and thus ensuring the smooth running of a large number of public and charitable institutions all over the Muslim world, Such institutions include Masjids, madrassas (educational institutions) orphanages and hospitals. Large endowments are attached to some of the big public institutions in Muslim countries.


Socialist Principles
The Islamic economy, is to a great extent based on socialist principles which aim at maintaining the equality of man and eliminating too much disparity, between the rich and the poor, Its ideal economic principles have raised the general standard of living and have prevented the esploitation of the poor at the hands of the rich. Islam has struck at the root of the principle of making the rich richer and the poor poorer, which has been followed in the capitalist and imperialist states of the world since time immemorial, The early Caliphate proved the words of the Holy Prophet of Islam that if Muslims faithfully pay their Zakat, a time would come when there would be no needy person to receive the same. The unequal distribution of wealth is the basis of all human conflicts both individual and social. Islam has evolved its economic principles on such lines as to minimise these disparities and eliminate distinctions in the distribution of human fortunes. The wealthy people are heavily taxed in order to help the poor and this taxation forms one of the cardinal principles of Islam which no true Muslim can violate.

Islam has steered midway between Capitalism and Communism--a mean between two extremes. Capitalism thrives at the cost of society and aims at building up private property. Communism has no place for private enterprise and economy. Islam while recognising one's right to build up private fortunes enjoins upon its followers to voluntarily part with 2 1/2% of their wealth every year for the benefit of the poor. This has greatly contributed to the removal of social inequality among Muslims in the past. It has, thus eliminated the defects of both Capitalism and Communism while retaining most of their virtues. Ensuring equitable and fair distribution of wealth, the Islamic economical system discourages the hoarding of wealth as idle wealth is also taxed 2 1/2% a year. It thus provides an incentive to the investment of capital in commerce and industry which means wider circulation of money, more employment and greater prosperity. Islam thus lays certain obligations(both moral and legal) upon its rich members which reduces the possibility of accumulating fabulous fortunes on their part. The Holy Book condemns hoarders in the strongest language. It says, "To those who hoard up gold and silver and spend them not in the way of Allah, tell them the tidings of grievious chastisement on the day when it (wealth) will be, heated in the fire of Hell, and their foreheads, their sides and their backs shall be branded with them. Moreover it will be said to them: 'This is what you did hoard (in the world) for yourselves; taste, therefore the fruits of what you hoarded there."l

Contrary to this, the persons who spend in the ways of God and keep the money in circulation are entitled to Divine blessings. The investment of wealth in useful pursuits and healthy trades does not only bring greater prosperity to oneself but also contributes to the well-being of others. So says the Holy Quran, "The likeness of those who spend their wealth in the ways of Allah is similar to a grain which groweth seven ears and in each ear are a hundred grains. And Allah giveth manifold increase to those. He willeth, for Allah is all encompassing and all knowing. Those who spend their wealth in the cause of Allah, and afterwards make not reproach, their reward is with their Lord and they should not be afraid or aggrieved"

The individual and the community are dependent upon one another. The prosperity of one means the prosperity of the other. Instead of ranging the interests of the individual and community against one another as is found in the economic systems of Communist and Capitalist states, Islam has recognised the interests of both. It has evolved such a healthy economic system that it has to a great extent minimised the conflict between the interests of the individual and that of the community.

The laws of inheritance evolved by Islam further eliminate the possibility of the accumulation of wealth and property in the hands of a few individuals. Contrary to the Hindu laws of inheritance in which the female members of the family have been denied property rights, Islam ordains the distribution of property among the members of the family both male and female. Apart from ensuring a fair distribution of property among the family members, the Islamic laws of inheritance build a social harmony and maintain an uniformity in the standard of living. It breaks up property into family shares and thus prevents property from becoming the monopoly of a few. Instead of accumulating fortunes, the Islamic laws of inheritance lead to dispersal and distribution.
Islam recognises one's right of private ownership of wealth, but at the same time enjoins upon the faithful to earn wealth through unquestionable means. The Holy Quran states: "Allah permitted trading and forbideth Usury" (11:275). It further states, "Give full measure and be not of those who give and weigh less. Do not deceive the people in matter of their goods" (XXVI--181--83).

Islamic economic principles control both the production and consumption of wealth. Recognising one's right of building private fortunes, it stresses that wealth in reality belongs to Allah which has been put in the custody of the individual, hence it should be spent in the ways of Allah which means in healthy pursuits. The Holy Quran states, "The wealth is of Allah which He hath bestowed upon you". (XXIV--33).

In an Islamic Economic system, ample subsistence to the individual is assured and it is for the Creator to provide livelihood to His every creature. The Holy Book states, "Slay not your children, fearing a fall to poverty, We shall provide for them and for you" (XVII-31). Again, "We have given you power in earth and appointed therein a livelihood. Little give ye thanks". Thus in an Islamic State, the State is to fulfil this guarantee of the Creator by providing subsistence to the poor out of the Zakat Tax.


Interest
Islam forbids both the taking and giving of interest. Modern economists, too, have slowly begun to realise the futility of interest. Keynes suggested the possibility of a zero rate of interest in stationary States, while Harrod advocated its total abolition, A number of modern economists have evolved the maintenance of a banking system without interest. A large number of failures in industrial and commercial enterprises in modern times is due to the high rate of interest charged on the money invested in them. A time comes when the borrower crumbling under heavy interest cannot borrow more money which results in the failure of his enterprise. Hence this institution is responsible for fluctuations in a number of ways. The well-known economist Marshall in his principles of Economics (Book IV, Chapter XIX) states, "the danger of not being able to renew his borrowings just at the time when he wants them more, puts him (the borrower) at a disadvantage relatively to those who use their own capital much greater than is represented by the mere interest on his borrowing. And the failure of this renewal may cause him to succumb to what would have been a passing misfortune if he had been using no capital, but his own". The depression and crisis in trade mostly results from the payment of high rate of interest. The socialists have wrongly attributed such crises to capitalism. In fact interest is the greatest evil of capitalism and it is rather the worst form of capitalism, The Islamic economy which accepts a form of capitalism without interest has almost eliminated its harmful aspects. The Holy Prophet of Islam has advised Muslims to avoid seven harmful things and the third among these is interest, He stated,'Although interest brings increase, yet its end tends to scarcity'. TheHoly Quran says, "That which ye give in interest in order that it may increase other peoples' wealth hath no increase with God; but that which ye give in growth tax, seeking God's countenance hath increases manifold" (XXX-39).

Even such well-known Economists as Piogu and Fisher have acknowledged the harmful effects of interest in causing commercial fluctuations and industrial crises. Islam favours the formation of joint stock companies and the Arabs were the first to start such companies. Trade partnership was very popular even in the days of the prophet of Islam. He himself had been the business partner of Hazrat Khadija, who later became his wife. Business shares could also be purchased.

Thus the Islamic economic principles if strictly followed would eliminate the possibility of accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few and would ensure the greater circulation of money as well as a wider distribution of wealth. Broadly speaking these principles are (1) Zakat or compulsory alms giving (2) The Islamic law of inheritance which splits the property of an individual into a number of shares given to his relations (3) The forbiddance of interest which checks accumulation of wealth and this strikes at the root of capitalism.

The sound economic system evolved by Islam if given a fair trial would solve the basic economic problems which have been troubling the modern world.

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MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY


Philosophy as defined by ancient thinkers is the Science of wisdom. It embraces all branches of knowledge, hence a philosopher in the time of the Greeks was recognised as a truly wise man.

Greek philosophy had becom dead in Europe and its teaching was banned by the Church as its knowledge made people inactive and irreligious. The Arabs revived Greek philosophy and it was through Kindi, Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes that the West learnt about Aristotle, Plate and Socrates. Arabian philosophy began with the warm reception of Greek philosophy in Arabia, when it had "vanished from its original soil, and whilst western Europe was still too crude and ignorant to be its home. Arabian philosophy at the outset of its career in the 9th A.D. century was able without difficulty to take possession of these resources for speculative thought which Latins had barely achieved at the close of the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering the Aristotelian Logic from the commentaries and verses of Boethius".

The Abbasid Caliphate which was influenced by Persian culture provided the most congenial atmosphere for the developmentof learning especially philosophy, Secular philosophy found its first entrance into,the. Muslim world through the Persian administrators of the early Abbasid Caliphate. The Abbasid Caliph Harun-ar-Rashid had some of the works of Aristotle translated intb Arabic for the first time. His successor Mamun-ar-Rashid founded the well-known Darul Hukama (House of Wisdom) where the translation of books from' foreign languages into Arabic was made by eminent translators who were employed on handsome salaries by the talented Caliph. His great patronage of learning attracted men of letters from all parts of the world who were engaged in translation and research work. The translation of the works of A ristotle and Plate paved the way for the growth of Islamic philosophy. The harmonisation of Greek philosophy with Islam was started by Al-Kindi, continued by Farabi and was completed by Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. Of the great Muslim philosophers Al-Kindi belonged to Basrah, Farabi, Ghazali and. Ibn Sina hailed from Turkistan and Persia, while Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja and Ibn Tufail who rivalled their Eastern counterparts were natives of Muslim Spain.

Al-Kindi (d'.873 A.D.), who is the greatest philosopher of the Arab race is known as the " Philosopher of the Arabs". He translated and wrote commentaries on a number of works by Aristotle. Being a natural philosopher he elaborately discussed the doctrine of soul and intelligence. The divine intelligence is the cause of the existence of the world. According to him, the world as a whole is the work of an extremely active cause, the divine intelligence, whose activity is transmitted in manyways from above to the world. Between God and the world of bodies is the world of soul, which created the world of Heavenly spheres, In so far as the human soul is cdmbined with the body, it is dependent on the influence of heavenly bodies, but in its spiritual origin and being it is free. Both immortality and freedom could be attained in the world of intelligence. It was in. De Intellectu, the Latin translation of Al-Kindi's philosophical work, tha2. the 'West discovered for the first time the doctrine of intelligence.

Towards the close of the 10th century A.D. there flourished in Basrah a Philosophical Society known as Ikhwan-al-Safa (Brethren of Purity). They tried unsuccessfully to reconcile religion with science. Their encyclopaedic work consisting of 51 treatises contain the idea of goodness and moral perfection. They had a leaning towards Pythagorean speculations. Abu Masr Farabi (d/950 A. D.) whose philosophical system according to George Sarton,''is a syncretism of Platonism, Aristotelianism and Sufism, was the founder of the Turkish School of Philosophy. He was an exponent of Neo-Platonic Philosophy, a system which was originated by Al-Kindi and was developed by Ibn Sina. There is a marked difference between the philosophical approach of Farabi, which is deductive, rational and abstract and that of Zakariya Razi which is inductive, experimental and concrete. The two systems in fact present two sides of the same picturer Razi being a naturalist emphasised the experimental side while Farabi having been inclined towards mysticism looked to the speculative and abstract side. In Ibn Sina these two systems are reunited though Ibn Sina is more methodical in his approach. The difference between Farabi and Ibn Sina is more pronounced on the question of the immortality of the soul which is accepted by the former and rejected by the latter. Like Plate, Farabi is a mystical thinker, whose reasoning finally leads him to mysticism and metaphysics. He was a Savant in the true sense of the word, and led a life of minimum wants. With him like all other mystics contemplation dominated action. He has tried to give philosophical and rational explanations of such intricate religious problems as prophecy, inspiration, heavens, destiny and Celestial Throne. Prophecy according to him is a form of moral perfection rather than an innate gift. In this way he is recognised as the founder of philosophical theology, which later on found its great exponent in Fakhruddin Razi. He was also the first to preach practical morality by recognising that the faculty of discerning good from evil is possessed by oneself.

Zakariya Al-Razi (865--925 A. D.) the eminent physician and scientist of Islam composed a number of metaphysical, philosophical and ethical works which have perished and only a few pieces are still available. Al-Razi professes the existence of five eternal principles in metaphysics--namely the Creator, the soul, matter, time and space, In spite of his pessimistic outlopk in metaphysics he is opposed to asceticism and believes in working for the welfare of the people. Like Aristotle he does not blame human passion but only its excessive indulgence. He believed in the evolution of scientic and philosophical knowledge and in this respect he is much ahead of his predecessors.

Ibn Sina (980--1037 A. D.) the most illustrious name amongst the oriental Muslims, whose rational philosophy tried to explain religious dogmas in the light of reason and thus invited severe criticism from Imam Ghazali. Like his predecessors he tried to harmonise abstract philosophy with religion. His main philosophical works are Kitab-as-Shifa, (The Book of Recovery), Al-Najat (The Salvation) and The Isharat (Instructions). His Kitab-as-Shifa, dealing with metaphysics, physics and logic had deeply influenced Western as well as'Eastern philosophy. His philosophical works reflected a conflict between materialism and idealism. He expounded the philosophical doctrines of Farabi and followed him in logic and epistemology. He has more clearly brought out the dualism of mind and matter, God and the world. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul is more definitely laid down by him. His philosophy brings out his scientific and progressive outlook. His compromise with Muslim theology did not find favour in orthodox circles and his philosophical works were burned in Baghdad. He explained the moving, changing and developing state of nature. His philosophy is the necessary link between the philosophy of Farabi and Ghazali on one hand and that of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) on the other.

Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali (1058-1111 A. D.) the great Muslim theologian and philosopher realised that the study of secular philosophy had resulted in an indifference towards religion. He renounced the life of pleasure and wandered in the Islamic world in search of mental peace. The conflict which had started in him gave him no rest and was fully brought out in his monumental work Ihyaal Ulum, which ranks amongst the greatest ethical works of Islam. He attacked the rationalistic and materialistic views of his predecessors including that of Ibn Sina and ultimately found solace in mysticism. His severe criticism of materialistic philosophy was afterwards answered by Ibn Rushd (Averroes). In Islam the theological system entrenched itself towards the end ofthe 12th century A. D. in the narrow orthodoxy of the Isharites. The entire ethical philosophy of Al-Ghazali rests on the foundation of mysticism. He had himself gone through the different phases of worldly life--namely scholastic discussions, the pride of high office, popularity among the people and the pomp and wealth. He had personally experienced the effects of such contacts on one's character. He has described these experiences in his immortal Ihyaal Ulum. His writings started a school of religious philosophy and influenced such outstanding thinkers as Maulana Rum, Shaikhul Ashraq, Ibn Rushd and Shah Waliullah. Al-Ghazali was mainly responsible for infusing mysticism into Persia and directing it into the right channels. He tried to reconcile the tenets of Islam with the teaching of the prevailing philosophy and science but not in a purely rational way as done by Farabi and Ibn Sina. His Ihyaal Ulum was widely read by Jews, Christians and Muslims alike and influenced Thomas Aquinas and even Blaise Pascal.

Ibn Rushd (1126--1198 A. D.) better known as Averroes in the West is undoubtedly the greatest philosopher of Islam, Together with Ibn Masarra and Ibnul Arabi, he Forms the trio of the great philosophers of Muslim Spain. The first two were essentially mystics while the third (Averroes) was a rationalist. He rose to be the greatest commentator of and exponent of Aristotelian philosophy. It was through his commentaries that the West learnt about Aristotle.

His Chief philosophical work is Tahafut-alTahafut (The incoherence of the incoherence) which was written in refutation of Al-Ghazali's work, Tahafut-al-Fahasifa (The destruction of philosophy). The philosophical writings of Averroes invited severe criticism and stirred up critical reactions throughout the Islamic world. A strong refutation of Ibn Rushd's arguments in Tahafut-al-Tahafut was made by a Turk, Mustafa Ibn Yusuf al-Bursavi, commonly known as Khwaja Zada (d/1487-88 A.D). This once more established the strength of faith and the weakness ofhuman understanding. But contrary to Muslim reactions, Averroes philosophical writings had a deep influence on Christian Europe. Alfred Gillaume in his article on philosophy and theology in the Legacy of Islam. writes that' "He (Averroes) belongs to Europe and European thought rather than to the East,,..Aver-
roism continued to be a living factor in European thought until the birth of modern experimental science, Latin is said to have preserved more than one of Ibn Rushd's works which Arabic has lost".'

Regarding predestination, Ibn Rushd maintained that man was neither the absolute master of his destiny nor bound by fixed, immutable decrees. According to him the truth lies in the middle, i.e. Al-Amr Bain · AL-Amrain. Human actions depend partly on free will and partly on outside causes. These causes spring from the general laws of nature--God alone knows their sequence. According to him man should make the utmost effort to attain perfection by which he means, complete identification with the alive intellect. This human perfection can be attained through study, speculation and negation of desires-specially those relating to senses.

This philosophy was considered to be irreligious in Muslim Spain where the society was formulated on true Arabiclines. Being a rational philosopher, his ideas were incompatible with the religious sentiments oforthodox Muslims and he was accused of being an atheist. But according to Philip K.Hitti, 'He was a rationalist and claimed the right to submit everything save the revealed dogmas qf faith to the judgment of reason, but he was not a free-thinker or unbeliever. His view of creation by God was evolutionary not a matter of days but of eternity"."

Averroism had a great influence on Europe. Jews became the greatest exponents of Averroism in the West. In Southern P;rance, the philosophical thought was influenced by Averroists. At Oxford Averroes was known as the great commentator and Bacon ranked him alongside Aristotle and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Averroism continued to be taught in the universities of Northern Italy including Padua which was its great centre. Other well-known philosophers of Muslim Spain were Ibn Baija, Ibn Tufail and Ibnul Arabi. Ibn Bajja (d/1138 A.D.) known as Avempace in the West has explained in his treatise Tadbir al-Mutawahhid (The Regime of Solitary), how man unaided can attain union with the active intellect. He considered that gradual perfection of the human spirit through union with the Divine is the object of philosophy. The Philosophus Antodiduclus of Ibn Tufail(d/ll85 A.D.) became a world classic.

Ibnul Arabi (1165--1240 A. D.) the greatest speculative genius of Islamic Sufism was born in Murcia(Spain). According to Ibnul Arabithe divine power manifests itself in the form of a perfect man which is of course, Muhammad (Peace be on him). His writings on mysticism influenced not 'only Persian and Turkish SuFi cirCles but also Duns Scots, Roger Bacon and Raymond Lull. The greatest exponent of mysticism in the East was Al-Suhrawardi (1191 A. D.).

Nasiruddin Toosi (1201--74 A.D.) wrote a large number of philosophical, metaphysical and theological treatises. In orthodox circles his fame chiepy rests on these treatises. His Kitab al-Fasul dealing with metaphysics was written in Persian, which was translated into Arabic by al-Jurjani. His great philosophical work Tajrid al-dqaid (AI-KaEam) is his most popular work on which a large number of commentaries have been written in Arabic, Persian and Turkish. His outstanding work on ethics entitled, Ikhlaq-i-Naasiri (Nasirian Ethics) is one of the best books on the subject and is still taught in Arab schools.

Islam had developed a Religious Philosophy of its own which is called Ilm-ul-Kalaam or Science of the word. The secular and scholastic philosophy receded into the background in the East after the vehement criticism of such philosophy by Imam Ghazali. But the philosophical and religious writings of Ghazali gave a fillip to religious philosophy and especially to mysticismand produced such outstanding religious philosophers as well as mystics as Fakhruddin Razi, Nasiruddin Toosi, Fariduddin Attar, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi, Ameer Khusro and Dr. Iqbal. The development of Islamic philosophy, thus took a new turn in which the later philosophers have made outstanding contributions--both through Prose and Poetry.

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ISLAMIC BACKGROUND OF WESTERN RENAISSANCE (1)


The nomadic Arabs, who rose from their desert tents, founded in remarkably short space of time, the mightiest empire of the Mediaeval era, which stretched from the shores of the Atlantic in the West to the Great Wall of China in the East. Their success in the field of territorial conquests was no more spectacular than their achievements in the realm of knowledge.

In fact they brought about the greatest revolution in the history of mankind-a revolution which embraced all aspectsof human activity. The memorable words of the Holy Prophet of Islam, "Go in quest of knowledge even unto the distant China'', awakened a spirit of enquiry among the Arabs which, hitherto lay dormant in them, The Muslims, who were the pioneers in all branches of knowledge during the Mediaeval times provided the necessary link between the ancient and modern civilizations. The light of knowledge which illuminated the lands of Moors in Spain and Sicily, was greatly instrumental in dispelling the gloom of ignorance that had enveloped the Mediaeval Europe. "It was under the influence of Arabian and Moorish revival of culture", writes Robert Briffault in his well-known work The Making of Humanity, "and not in the 15th century, that the real renaissance took place. Spain and not Italy, was the cradle of the rebirth of Europe. After sinking lower and lower in barbarism, it had reached the darkest depths of ignorance and degradation when the cities of the Saracenic world Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova, Toledo, were growing centres of civilization and intellectual activity. It was there that the new life arose which was to grow into a new phase of human evolution. From the time when the influence of their culture made itself felt, began the stirring of a new life". Another great orientalist Philip K. Hitti, acknowledges the greatness of Arab culture when he writes in his History of the Arabs "Moslem Spain wrote one of the brightest Chapters in the intellectual history of mediaeval Europe. Between the middle of the 8th and the beginning of the 13th centuries, as we have noted before, the Arab speaking peoples were the main bearers of the torch of culture and civilization throughout the world. Moreover they were the medium through which ancient science and philosophy were recovered, supplemented and transmittedin such a way as to make possible the renaissance of western Europe. In all this Arabic Spain had a large share".?

The quest of knowledge was not confined to intellectuals only. Even the great Caliphs and their courtiers vied with each other in the patronage and pursuit of knowledge. "In the midst of all this luxury", writes John William Draper, in his The Intellectual Development of Europe, which cannot be regarded by the historian with disdain, since in the end it produced a most important result in the South of France, the Spanish Caliphs emulating the example of their Asiatic compeers, and in this strongly contrasting with the Popes of Rome, were not only the patrons, but the personal cultivators of all the branches of human learning. One of them was himself the author of a work on polite literature in not less than fifty volumes, another wrote a treatise on algebra. When Ziryab the musician came from the East to Spain, the Caliph Abdur Rahman rode forth to meet him in honour" Another reputed Western historian says, "The incorruptible treasures and delights of intellectual culture were accounted by the princes of Baghdad, Shiraz and Cordova, the truest and proudest pomps of their courts. But it was not a more appanage of princely vanity that the wonderful growth of Islamic Science and learning was fostered by their patronage. They pursued culture with the personal ardour of an overmastering craving. Never before and never since, on such a scale, has the spectacle been witnessed of the ruling classes throughout the length and breadth of a vast empire given over entirely to a frenzied passion for the acquirement of knowledge. Learning seemed to have become with them the chief business of life. Caliphs and Amirs hurried from their Diwans to closet themselves in their libraries and observatories. They neglected their affairs of State to attend lectures and converse on mathematical problems with men of science".'

Western historians have purposely avoided acknowledging the debt which their modern civilization owed to the Muslims and till the beginning of the 18th century A.D., the factors which brought about the renaissance in Europe were shrouded in mystery. The greatness of Muslim achievements in diverse branches of learning was hidden behind the thick cover of Western partisanship. Writing in his celebratedwork, The Intellectual Development of Europe, John William Draper says, "I have to deplore the systematic manner in which the literature of Europe it has contrived to put out of sight our scientific obligation to the Muhammadans. Surely they cannot be much longer hidden. Injustice founded on religious rancour and national conceit cannot be perpetuated for ever.....The Arab has left his intellectual impress on Europe, as, before long, Christendom will have to confess; he has indelibly written it on the heavens, as anyone may see who reads the names of the stars on a common celestial globe". The fair minded Robert Briffault has more convincingly exposed the game of early historians who totally ignored the influence of Muslim culture on the revival of the West. He says, "The debt of Europe to the 'Heathen Dog', could, of course, find no place in the scheme of the Christian history, and the garbled falsification has imposed itself on all subsequent conceptions". Even Gibbon treated Islam depreciatingly, an instance of the power of conventional tradition upon its keenest opponents. Until the last century there did not even exist anything approaching accurate knowledge of Saracenic history and culture. 'These accounts of Muhammad and Islam which were published in Europe before the beginning of the 19th century are now to be regarded simply as library curiosities'. (Prof. Bevan--Cambridge Mediaeval History). The history of the rebirth of Europe from barbarism is constantly being written without any reference, whatsoever, except to mention, the 'triumphs of the Cross over the Crescent', and 'the reclamation of Spain from the 'Moorish Yoke', to the influence of Arab Civilization--the History of the Prince of Denmark without Hamlet. Dr. Osborn Taylor has even achieved the feat of writing two large volumes on The Development of the Mediaeval Mind without betraying by a hint the existence of Muhammadan culture. That a brilliant and energetic civilization (of the Muslims) full of creative energy should have existed side by side and in constant relation with populations sunk in barbarism (the Christian West), without exercising a profound and vital influence upon their development, would be a manifest anomaly...... "It is highly probable that but for the Arabs modern European civilization would never have arisen at all; it is absolutely certain that but for them, it would have not assumed that character which has enabled it to trascend all previous phases of evolution. For although theres not a single aspect of European growth in which the decisive influence of Islamic culture is not traceable, nowhere is it so clear and momentous as in the genesis of that power which constitutes the permanent distinctive force of the modern world and supreme source of its victory--natural science and the scientific spirit".l

Thus Christian Europe was rather slow to recognize the greatness of Islamic learning and its influence on the Revival of the West. Westerners like John Davenport, Stanley Lane Poole, M.P.E. Berthelot and more recently Holmyard, Max Meyerhof, George Sarton, Philip K. Hitti, Robert Briffault and John William Draper have gratefully acknowledged the part played by Muslims in the advancement of learning and the awakening of Europe. "Down to the 15th century", writes a western historian, "Whatever scientific activity existed in Europe was engaged in assimilating Arab learning without greatly adding to it."


Islamic Institutions
The Muslim State of Spain had cultivated a great civilization and a high degree of culture. Its well planned cities and well organised public works including the well laid out streets, parks, schools, colleges and hospitals made it a model State in the West whose phenominal cultural, industrial and social progress was viewed with wonder by the Christian visitor. The Moors had introduced beneficial irrigation systems and new crops in Spain. The high class fabrics manufactured in their textile factories were used in the Royal Houses of Europe. Cordova, the Capital of Moorish Spain was the most cultured city of Europe. With its 113,000 houses, 21 suburbs, seventy big libraries and numerous colleges, Masjids, palaces, parks and gardens it had acquired international reputation. With its well-illuminated streets, Cordova provided a striking contrast to the European cities and according to John William Draper, "Seven hundred years after this time there was not so much as one public lampin London....... In Paris, centuries subsequently, whoever stepped over his threshold on a rainy day stepped up to his ankles in mud".' When the student of the University of Oxford abhorred baths as heathen custom the Moors enjoyed baths in luxurious establishments. Whenever the Christian rulers of European States needed an artist, physician or technical hand, they applied to the Cordova Government. "The fame of the Muslim Capital penetrated as far as the distant Germany where a Saxon nun (Hrosvitha) styled it as 'The Jewel of the World'.' The great social and cultural progress of Cordova inspired awe and admiration in the hearts of European travellers"

The Muslims of Spain had taken long strides in almost all branches of knowledge and had evolved an educational system which embraced all sciences and arts. A large number of educational institutions had sprung up in the four corners of the State including in Cordova, Granada, Toledo and Seville, where learned teachers imparted lessons in the sciences and arts. These Islamic institutions of Muslim Spain and Sicily were the cradle of modern European civilization and the training ground of persons like Roger Bacon and Gerbert Aurillec who ultimately paved the way for the renaissance of Mediaeval Europe. The Christian students enjoyed absolute religious tolerance and complete social freedom in Muslim Spain, which attracted large number of Christian students from all parts of Europe, who after completing their studies in Moorish Schools went back to their native places and taught new theories to astonished people. "From all parts of Europe", says Robert Briffault, "numerous students betook themselves to the great Arab seats of learning in the search of light which only there was to be found. Alvaro, a Cordovan Bishop, writes in the 9th century A.D. 'All the young Christians who distinguished themselves by their talent, know the language and literature of the Arabs, read and study passionately the Arab books, gather at great expense great libraries of these, and everywhere proclaim with loud voice how admirable is that literature'."' The celebrated Gerbert of Aurillec who studied in Moorish school, brought from Spain some rudiments of astronomy and mathematics, and taught his astonished peoples from terrestrlaland celestial globes. His great knowledge which in the word of William of Malmesbury was 'Stolen from the Saracen', had made him as Pope Sylvester II.

The Jews, who soon mastered the Saracenic sciences and arts carried the Muslim theology and philosophy to the distant Benedictine monasteries and the metropolitan house of Monte Cassino, According to Alvaro, the Bishop of Cordova in the 9th century A.D., a large number ‘lamented that, during his stay in Spain he had seen troops of students from Germany, France, England, flocking to the Moorish seats of learning'. In spite of the strict restrictions imposed by the orthodox Christian missionaries on the diffusion of Islamic learning in Europe it penetrated as far as distant Germany and far off England. Frederik II, the Emperor of Italy and Sicily was accused of being a Muslim due to his patronage and love of Islamic learnings. Muslim Sicily did not lag behind in the cultivation of a high standard of civilization including the founding of big institutioas for teaching sciences and arts. Even after the fall of the Muslim State, the Norman kings of Sicily continued to patronise Muslim learnings, for which they were condemned by the Pope.

Gradually the Arabic sciences and arts made their way into Europe, which led to the opening of a number of institutions in France, Germany and even in .England where Arabian sciences were taught by teachers who had learnt them in Muslim Spain and Sicily. Montpellier in the 14th century A.D., was the principal centre for the teaching of Arabian medicine and astronomy in France. "By the close of the 13th century", writes Philip K. Hitti, "Arabic science and philosophy had been transmitted to Europe, and Spain's work as an intermediary was done. The intellectual avenue leading from the portals of Toledo through the Pyrenees wound its way through Provence and the Alpine passes into Lorraine, Germapy, and Central Europeas well as across the Channel into England".' It was in Marseilles, a French port on the Mediterranean that in 1140 A.D. Raymond prepared planetary tables based on those of Toledo. The famous Abbey of Cluny in southern France which housed a number of Spanish monks in the 12th century A.D. became an important centre for the diffusion of Arabian knowledge. As early as the 1Oth century A.D. Arabian sciences were introduced in Lorraine, which after two centuries grew into an important region for scientific study. Cities like Liege, Cologne, and Gorze provided the most congenial atmosphere for the growth of Arabian knowledge. "From Lorraine it radiated into other parts of Germany and was transported into Norman England by men born or educated in Lorraine. Embassies between German kings in the North and Muslim rulers in Spain were frequent and intellectually fruitful. As early as 953 A.D., Otto the Great, King of the Germans, sent as an envoy a Lotharingian monk, John by name, who resided in Cordova for nearly 3 years, probably learned Arabic and brought back with him scientific manuscripts. Thus did Spanish Arabic learning premeate all Western Europe".'

The translated works of Arab scientists in botany, zoology, physics and alchemy were taught in European universities specially those of Northern Italy and France. Jews, after Muslims,were the great exponents of Arab learning and founded schools along Spanish lines at Bari, Salerno, Tarentum and other places. Bartholo Ceuse had named 4,000 Jewish scholars scattered all over southern and western Europe who had imbibed Arab civilization and culture and were well versed in Arabian learning. According to the Right Honourable Lecky, the author of Rationalism in Europe, "Jewish learning and Jewish genius contributed very largely to that bright, but transienf civilization which radiated from Toledo and Cordova and exercised so salutary an influence upon the belief of Europe". The educated Jews, whose medium of education in Spain was Arabic, took a leading part in the translation of Arabic works into Hebrew and other European languages. The Jewish teachers disseminated Arabian medicine and other sciences in the medical schools of Salerno and other European countries.

The Jews who enjoyed complete tolerance in Muslim Spain took a lively interest in the development and popularisation of Arabian learning both during and after the Moorish regime. They were scattered all over Europe after the Ahmohadeen conquest and became the ambassadors of Arabian culture wherever they went. French and German monks including Hildegard and Hrosvitha, the literary nuns of the Thuringian convent, learnt Arabian sciences from them. The wandering Jews founded numerous schools such as those of Kimhic and Ben Esra of Norbonne, where the diffusion ofGrabian learning was carried on through translation and teaching. A large number of these Jews accompanied William of Normandy to England where they established the first English school of science at Oxford, in which Arabian sciences were freely taught. It was in this school that Roger Bacon learnt Arabic sciences from Jewish teachers.


Translations
The Christian Scholars who had studied in the institutions of Muslim Spain translated several important works of Arab writers into European languages which provided the firm ground on which the stately edifice of Western learning was raised. During the 12th and 13th centuries A.D. the process of the diffusion of Arab sciences assumed massive scale and there were several centres in southern France for the dissemination of Arabian Culture. Constantine, an African monk (1087 A.D.), who had acted as secretary to Robert Guiscard, translated several Arabic works including the theoretical part of Ali Ibn Abbas, al-Kitab aLMaliki.

The surgical part of the book was translated into Latin by John, a disciple of Consrantine. Gerard of Cremona was one of the greatest exponents of Arabian learning. He spent more than 50 years in Muslim Spain devoting himself to the pursuit of Arabic learning and translated more than ninety Arabic works including Al-IZanun, the monumental medical works of-Ibn Sina, Almagest of Ptolemy, Tasrif of Al-Zahrawi, ;rlI-Mansuri of Al-Razi and the astronomy of AlHaitham. Faraj ben Salim, the Sicilian Jew, translated in 1279, Al-Hawi, the well-known medical work of Al-Razi as well as Taqwim al-dbdan, written by Ibn Jazlah. Europe is chiefly indebted for its knowledge of Arabic medicine to Constantine, Gerard of Cremona and Faraj hen Salim whose translations paved the way for the growth of medical science in the West. Adelard of Bath, attached for a considerable time to the house of Benedictine was the greatest Arabist of England who popularised Arab learning in France and England. He brought a large number of books from Cordova, which he translated and popularised in England. Of his many translated works, the outstanding are theElements ofEuclid, the astronomical tables of Majriti (1126 A.D.), the astronomical tables of AlKhwarizmi, the astronomical tables of Abu Ma'sher Jafar and many other astronomical and mathematical treatises. Toledo, after its fall into Christian hands in 1085 A.D. became an important centre for the transmission of Arabic literary treasures to the West.. Under the guidance of Archbishop Raymond I (1126--51 A.D.) there arose a regular translation deparment in which Michael Scot, Robert Chester and Gerard of Cremona made valuable translations of important Arabic works. Michael Scot (1236) who is considered as one of the founders of Latin Averroism later became the court astrologer of Frederick II of Sicily.. He translated among other works Al-Hai'a (Bitruji's astronomy), Adstotle's De Coelo et-Mundo, with Ibn Rushd's commentary, and many Arabic works on zoology. His translations of Ibn Rushd's works greatly influenced the later European philosophers. Robert Chester made the first translation of Al-Khwarini's algebra in 1145 A.D. In 1143 he along with Hermann, the Dalmatian, completed the first translation of the Holy Quran. Gerard of Cremona was the most prolific of Toledo translators., Leorardo Fibonacci, who travelled extensively in Spain and Algeria learnt Arabic mathematical science and translated the great work of:-Al-Khwarizmi on algebra. His translated works greatly influenced later writers, hence he is considered the founder of modern mathematics in Europe.. He greatly. popularised the perfected decimal notation in Europe. Daniel de Morley who studied astronomy and mathematics in Cordova, published a number of works and lectured at the Oxford School. Theodore of Antioch translated into Latin, an Arabic work dealing with hawking, which is considered as the first modern natural history. Abraham Ben Ezra(1167 A.D.) a Jew of Toledo translated al-Beruni's commentary on Khwarizmi's Tables. John of Seville translated among others the medical and philosophical works of al-Farghani, Abu Mahsar, Al-Kindi and Al-Ghazali. Plate and Tivoli translated the astronomy of AlBattani as well as other mathematical works. Companus of Novara who had studied mathematics at Corodva taught the subject in Vienna. Alfonso, the sage had established schools at Toledo for the translation of Arabic works. Stephens of Egypt who received his education in Muslim Sicily translated the important medical work of al-Majusi in 1127 A,D.

Sicily stands next to Spain in the diffusion of Arab culture. Muslim learning was transmitted to Europe from Spain and Sicily. Even after the conquest of Sicily at the hands of the Normans in 1091A.D. the Christian rulers exercised great tolerance towards Muslims and contrary to their counterparts in Spain patronised Muslim culture. The superior culture of the conquered race had won the hearts of the conquerors, so much so that Roger, the first King of Sicily and his successors were accused of being more Muslim than Christian. Sicily, which even in the Christian era continued to be a great centre of Muslim civilization, played a vital part in the awakening of Europe. The civil administration of Sicily served as a model for Europe. It was Thomas Burn, who introduced the English fiscal system during the reign of Henry II, which he had learnt in Muslim Sicily. Sicily, with its central position served as an intermediary between the two cultures, Christian and Muslim. It provided an ideal centre for the dissemination of Arabic civilization. There was continuous intercourse between the two Norman States of England and Sicily which was instrumental in bringing many elements of Muslim culture to distant Britain. Emperor Frederick II, in spite of strong opposition from-the orthodox quarters, continued to be the greatest patron of Muslim culture in Europe. "Its great far-reaching influence reached its height when the kingdom passed into the hands of the great Italian born Emperor Frederick II," writes Robert Briffault, "whose radiant figure filled the Middle Ages with wonder. If the name of any European sovereign deserves to be specially associated with the redemption of Christendom from barbarism and ignorance it was not that of Charlemagne, the travesty of whom in the character of a civilizer is a fulsome patriotic and ecclesiastical fiction, but that of the enlighted and enthusiatic ruler(FrederickII) who adopted Saracenic civilization and did more than any sovereignto stimulate its diffusion" The Jews of Sicily played a vital role in the diffusion of Arabian learning in Europe. Of them Farragut of Sirgent, Mese of Palermo and Faraz Ben Salem are noteworthy. The first two translated the astronomical and mediCal works of Arabs into Latin. Southern Italy which was ruled by the Norman Kings of Sicily considerably assisted in diffusing Arab culture to nor them Italy and even to central Europe. A number of translators worked in western Italy, Burgundio of Pisa (1130 A.D.) translated ten books of Galen; Bonacosa, a Jew translated the colliget of Ibn Rushd at Padua and Paravisius translated the Taysir of Ibn Johral at Venice. Due to a lack of appropriate wards, Arabic technical words and scientific terms were adopted in Latin. Thus the Arabic words alchemy, alcohol, azure, cipher, elixir (al-Taksir) were introduced into the vocabulary of Europe and are still in use.

The work of translating Arabic works continued unabated till the middle of the 17th century A.D. Great attention was paid to the translation of Arabic chemical works. Andrea Alphago of Baluno of Italy (1520 A.D.) translated the biographical dictionary of Ibn Kifti as well as some of the important works of Galen, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. A work of Abdur Rahman on music and the Pyramids was rendered into Latinby Piyare Vattier of Orleans in 1664 A.D.

The period of translation was followed by a period when Arabian knowledge was systematised, assimilated and the ground prepared for the creative works which brought about the renaissance in Europe. The systematisers arranged the vast material obtained through Arabian sources and paved the way for the intellectual growth of Europe. Among the foremost systematisers were Alexander of Halle (1245 A.D.), Robert Grosseteste (1255 A.D.), St. Thomas Acquinas (1225-75 A.D.) Albertus Magnus (1193-1290 A.D.)., Roger Bacon (1214-94 A.D.), Amold of Villanova (1255-1320A.D.), and Peter of Abano (1250-1320 A.D.). "The impulse of this intellectual activity", writes Campbell, "was derived in the main from the Arabian writers and Albertus Magnus and Rager Bacon were the eminent types of Arabo-Scholastics of the period who derived the basis of their learning from Arabian sources."

Roger Bacon (1214-94 A.D.) is considered the father of the European renaissance. He was educated by Jewish teachers in the Oxford School which was established, for the propagation of Muslim science by Jews who had been driven out of Spain by the Christians and had reached England along with William of Normandy. According to M. N.. Roy,"Roger Bacon was a disciple of Arabs".. Roger Bacon, who in the West is known as the originator of the experimental method in Europe had himself received his training from the pupils of Spanish Moors and had learnt everything from Muslim sources, The writer of the article "Roger Bacon" in the Encyclopaedia Britannica claims that it is beyond all doubt! that Rager Bacon was profoundry versed in Arabian learning and derived from it many of the germs of his philosophy." The influence of Ibn Haitham (Alhazen) on Roger Bacon is clearly visible in his works. Europe was rather slow to recognise the Islamic origin of her much advertised scientific (experimental) method. Writing in the Making of HumaaitY, R. Briffault admits that "It was under their successors at the Oxford School that Roger Bacon learned Arabic and Arabic science.

Neither Rager Bacon nor his later namesake has any title to be credited with having introduced the experimental method. Roger Bacon was no more than one of the apostles of Muslim science and method to Christian Europe; and he never wearied of declaring that the knowledge of Arabic and Arabic science was for his contemporaries the only way to true knowledge". As a reward for his love of Arabic science, Roger Bacon was thrown into prison as a sorcerer and he died shortly after his release from 10 years imprisonment.

The Crusadeb were partly responsible for popularising Puiuslim learning in Christian Europe. The direct contacts of the Christian west with Muslims in Palestine made the Christian scholars like Raymond Lull of Catalonia (1235--1315 A. D,X realise the futility of conquering Islam by brute force and attempt to win their hearts by peaceful means. This necessitated the learning of Arabian sciences and of training Christian missionaries in Arabic culture. Such a training centre was established in Toledo in 1250 A. D. Raymond the Martin, who was the principal scholar of this school, founded a monastic college at Miramar in 1276 A.D. Probably it was Martin who influenced the ecclesiastical council of Vienna in 1311 A.D. to adopt a Resolution to create the chair of Arabic language at the Universities of Paris, Louvain and Salamanca. According to Lec Clerc, "The contacts of the Arabs with southern Italy and the Crusades contributed to the spread of Arabian medicine and culture generally in the west of Europe". Campbell also testifies to the above view when he says, "the crusaders were undoubtedly influenced by the medical and philosophical doctrines of the Arabians". The superior culture and advanced knowledge of the Arabs in several branches of learning greatly influenced the Christian crusaders when they came in direct contact with the Arabs and the works of persons like Hermon the Cripple bear testimony to this inffuence of Arab culture.

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ISLAMIC BACKGROUND OF WESTERN RENAISSANCE (2)

Influence on the West
The Muslims, who were pioneers in almost all branches of learning led the West in diverse spheres Of mediaeval thought. "The mission of mankind was accomplished by Muslims", writes George Sarton, The greatest philosopher, Al-Farabi was a Muslim the greatest mathematicians, Abul Kamil and Ibrahim Ibn Sina were Muslims; the greatest geographer and encyclopaedist, al-Musudi was a Muslim; the greatest historian, Al-Tabari was still a Muslim".

The influence of the Muslims could be traced in almost all spheres of life in the Mediaeval West including sciences and arts, commerce and industry, music and painting. The brightest luminaries of the Mediaeval times were Jabir, Kindi, Jahiz and Baytar in sciences; Zakariya Razi, Ibn Sinaand Zahrawi in medical science; Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam, Abul Wafa and Nasiruddin Toosi in mathematics and astrbnomy; Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ghazali, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Arabi and Fakhruddin Razi in philosophy; Tabari, Ibn Miskawayh, Ibn Athir and Ibn Khaldun in history; Masudi, Idrisi and Ibn Hauqal in geography; Farabi, Zalzal, Ziryab and Ibrahim Mausili in music; Behzad, Maani and Raza Abbasi in painting. They have left behind on the pages of history the imprint of their genius in the respective branches of their activity. As already stated in detail in previous chapters a number of their works served as standard text books both in the West as well in the East till the beginning of the 18th century A.D.

The Arabs were the real originators of sciences in the world. Discarding the speculative method of the Greeks, they based their scientific research on observation and experiment.which gave birth to experimental method. This experimental method introduced by the Arabs was in fact, responsible for rapid advancement of science during the mediaeval times. Jabir, the father of modern chemistry was the greatest chemical scientist of the mediaeval times whose writings influenced the course of Europeam alchemy and chemistry. The Kilab Al-Haywan written by Jahiz is an invaluable book on zoology containing germs of, later theories on evolution, adoptation and animal psychology. Ibn al-Baytar is universally acknowledged as the most eminent botanist of Mediaeval times. According to the Historians' History, it was from Ibn al-Haitham's Twilight that the illustrious Kepler took his ideas of atmospheric refraction and "it may be that Newton himself owes to the Arabs, rather than to the apple in his orchard at Woolsthorpe the first apperception of the system of the universe, for Muhammad Ben Musa seems, when writing his books on the movements of the celestial bodies and on the Force of Attraction, to have had an inkling of the great law of general harmony."

In medical science Al-Razi's AI-Hawi (Continens) in 20 volumes and Al-JudariwalHasbah (a book dealing with small-pox) which ran into more than fifty editions during 1498--1866; Ibn Sina's (Avicenna's) AI-IZanunFi Tibb (Canon) published 36 times and surgeon Zahrawi's al-Tasrif were recognised as the highest authority on medicine during the mediaeval era. Avicenna's influence on European medicine has been overwhelming.

In mathematics and astronomy, the works on algebra written by Khwarizmi and Omar Khayyam, books on geometry and trigonometryleft behind by Abul Wafa, Nasiruddin Toosi and the treatises on astronomy by Khwarizmi, Omar Khayyam, Al-Beruni and Nasiruddin Toosi are the most outstanding contributions to these sciences during the middle ages. The translation of Khwariumi's algebra marked the beginning of European algebra. The introduction of zero to arithmetic by the Arabs was a highly beneficial step towards the simplification of arithmetic. The Muslims had specialised in historiography and political science which were their favourite subjects. Tabari, the father of Arabian historiography is considered as one of the greatest historians of the mediaeval era, who has influenced the art of writing history both in the East and the West. Ibn Khaldun, the founder of the science of sociology has the unique distinction of treating history as a science by supporting his facts with reasoning. More than any historian, Ibn Khaldun has influenced the modern thought in historiography, politics, sociologl and political economy.

Among the eminent travellers, explorers and navigators who brought the distant parts of-Mediaeval world closer through their discoveries and writings are Ibn Batuta, Masudi, Beruni, Ibn Hauqal, Moqaddasi, Sulaiman Al-Mahiri and Ibn Majid, They also paved the way for the growth of Arabian commerce which was carried on with distant parts of the known world both through land and sea routes. The products of the highly developed industries in Muslim countries found good market throughout the world.

In fine arts and music too, Muslim artists influenced their European counterparts and the musicians Farabi, Ishaq Mausili, Zalzal and Ziryab; the paihters Maani and Behzad were the greatest figures of their time in the respective spheres of theirarts. Muslims had developed a distinctive style of their own in architecture and built some of the most magnificent and beautiful buildings in the world including Alhambra, the Grand Masjid of Cordova in Spain, Masjid of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, the grand Masjid of Isfahan and the Taj Mahal of Agra. These are even now recognised as the architectural wonders of the world.

Thus the Muslims kept aloft the candle of civilization during the Mediaeval era and their contributions to the advancement of human progress provided the necessary link between the ancient and modern civilizations. The Islamic universities of Nizamiyah and Mustansariya at Baghdad, the Al-Azhar of Cairo, and the universities of Cordova and Salerno diffused knowledge to students composed of all communities who flocked to these seats of learning from distant parts of the world including Europe.


The four factors
The four factors, which are generally recognised by European Historians as the basis of Western Renaissance are (1) The recovery of Greek Classics, (2) The diminution of ecclesiastical authority, (3) The discovery of the New World and (4) The introduction of the Printing Press. But curiously enough these factors are more or less resulted from the impact of Islamic culture with the west. The Islamic influence may easily be trace in the birth and growth of these factors which are said to have brought about the renaissance in Europe.

As regards the Greek Classics, it is universally admitted both in the East and the West that it were the Arabs who patronised and saved them from total extinction. Hence the Greek classics existed in Arabic version only, which were later translated by the Christian scholars into European languages The Historians History admits, "They (Arabs) merit eternal gratitude for having been the preserver of the learning of Greeks and Hindus when those people were no longer preducing anything and Europe was still too ignorant to undertake the charge of the precious Depot. Efface the Arabs from history and the Renaissance of letters will be retarded in Europe by several centuries''. Writing in the History of Medicine in the Middle Ages, Max Kahn observes, "The tolerance of Arabs was the saving grace of civilization. They relit the lamp of learning which had been extinguished in Europe, and the light of Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen illuminated the Masjids and cloisters of infidels". According to Dr. F. J. C. Hearnshaw, writer of the Chapter on "European Life and Manners" in Vol. 6 of the Universal History of the World, "Christian students repaired to Islamic schools to learn the wisdom of the ancients and to' gain the secrets of those arts and crafts which made Muhammedan Spain famous throughout the world.. It was by way of Spain that the long lost works of Aristotle reached Western Christendom, to revolutionise scholastic Philosophy and Theology." According to Stanley Lane-Poole "What mediaeval Europe knew of Greek Philosophy, Mathematics, Chemistry, Astronomy and Medicine was learned principally through Latin translations. from Arabic treatises which held their places in the schools of Europe down to the sixteenth and even well into the seventeenth century." (Chapter on "Golden Age of Arab Culture" in Vol. IV. of the Universal History of the World).

The second factor namely the diminution of religious authority in the Christian authority was caused by Reformation and Crusades. Martin Luther, who was the founder of Reformation was so much influenced by Islamic culture that he was accused of being a Muhammadan by the orthodox Christians. The Crusaders, bailing from different parts of Christian Europe came in direct contact with Muslims in the Holy Land and were deeply influenced by the Islamic culture. On return they introduced those reforms to their life which greatly weakened the hold of the Church on the common Christian. Dr. B. W. Stevenson says in the Chapter on "The Spirit and Influence of the Crusades" in Volume 3 of The Universal History of the World (7 Vols., London, 1928) : "The learning and art and science of the East, its public services and methods of government, its highly developed industries and the superior luxury and comfort of the domestic life of its upper classes, exerted a powerful and far-reaching influence upon Europe in the Crusading period. Another historian of the Crusades, Dr. Henry Elmer Barnes, says in Vol. I. of his History of Western Civilisation "The Westerners learned many Muslim and Oriental ways and developed a taste for the luxuries of the region. All this promoted a demand for Eastern goods and accelerated the growth of commerce. The Italians, who had acted as transporting agents for the Crusaders, took full advantage of their opportunities to build up trading relations with the East. Travel was promoted, and the explorations of Marco Polo and others followed on the heels of the Crusaders. This still further encouraged trade between Europe and the Orient. The revived trade promoted the rise of towns and a more progressive element in European life. The science and culture of the Muslims were brought back to Europe and helped to create the remarkable intellectual revival of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries"

The third factor namely the discovery of America was actually the outcome of Arab efforts. The latest researches carried on by Dr. Jeffrey, the celebrated anthropologist of South Africa has proved that Arabs discovered America five centuries ahead of C. Columbus.

The fourth factor namely the invention of the Printing Press is also indirectly connected with the introduction and large scale production of paper in Europe by the Arabs. Without paper there would have been no Printing Press.